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Gender Flashcards

Introduction to Gender; Sex-Role Stereotypes; Androgyny and BSRI; Chromosomes and Hormones; Atypical Sex Chromosome Patterns; Kohlberg's Theory; Gender Schema Theory, Psychodynamic Explanation; Social Learning Theory; Culture and Media; Atypical Gender Development

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1
Q

What is sex?

A

Biological aspects of an individual as determined by their anatomy, produced by their chromosomes, hormones and interactions

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2
Q

What is sex generally?

A

Male or female

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3
Q

When is sex assigned?

A

At birth

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4
Q

What is gender?

A

A social construction relating to behaviours and attributes based on labels of masculinity and femininity

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5
Q

What is gender identity?

A

Personal, internal perception of oneself and so the gender category someone identifies with may not match the sex they assigned at birth

Where an individual may see themselves as a man, woman, non-binary or on the spectrum

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6
Q

What are sex-role stereotypes?

A

Set of ideas about behaviours/traits/qualities/characteristics that are expected for males and females

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7
Q

Who are sex-role stereotypes usually shared by?

A

Members of a culture/society

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8
Q

What do sex-role stereotypes act as?

A

Short-cut to expected behaviours in a given context

Boys and girls will behave in ways they understand to be typically male/female

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9
Q

How are sex-role stereotypes developed?

A

SLT: through observation, imitation and reinforcement

Kohlberg: through development of cognitive awareness of gender (development of gender constancy)

Freud: as part of the process of internalisation

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10
Q

What are some examples of stereotypes?

A

Males: breadwinners, strong, aggressive

Females: meek, stay-at-home

Boys like blue, girls like pink

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11
Q

Strength of sex-role stereotypes - cognitive short-cut

A

Sex-role stereotypes give you an idea of what you should be doing in certain situations

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12
Q

Limitation of sex-role stereotypes - Smith and Lloyd

A

Swapped boys and girls clothing and used other names

Participants unknowingly gave boys “girl’s toys” and girls “boy’s toys”

The toys played with can cause physical changes to the brain

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13
Q

Evaluation for sex-role stereotypes

A

Temporal validity

Negative effects of stereotypes (academic/career expectations)

Positive effects of stereotypes (act as a cognitive short-cut)

Relative influences of learning and biology on gender; cultural differences

Wider discussion in relation to determinism

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14
Q

What is androgyny?

A

Either biologically male or female who has an equally high level of masculine and feminine traits

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15
Q

What does BSRI stand for?

A

Bem Sex Role Inventory

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16
Q

What is the BSRI?

A

10 American undergraduate students were asked which personality traits they thought were desirable for men and women

Questionnaire includes 20 masculine, feminine and neutral traits each

Rate on a Likert scale from 1-7

Scores correlate to high masculine, high feminine, androgyny and undifferentiated

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17
Q

What are the ethical issues with BSRI?

A

Protection from harm: upset with results that they get

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18
Q

How can the ethical issues with the BSRI be dealt with?

A

Telling participants results are normal and the positives of their attributes

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19
Q

What is the threat to external validity in the BSRI?

A

Temporal validity

Population validity

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20
Q

What is the threat to internal validity in the BSRI?

A

Didn’t measure masculine/feminine, it measured self-esteem or confidence

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21
Q

How did the BSRI attempt to reduce the threat to internal validity?

A

Added distractor questions

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22
Q

Limitation of BSRI - self report

A

Social desirability bias

Demand characteristics

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23
Q

Limitation of BSRI - temporal validity

A

Hoffman and Borders 2001

Little agreement of masculine and feminine traits by 400 students

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24
Q

Strength of BSRI - reliability

A

External: test-retest over 4 weeks 0.74-0.96

Internal: a short 30 questionnaire is 0.9 correlation which shows good internal reliability

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25
Q

Limitation of BSRI - Spence et al

A

Fourth category was needed to distinguish between high male/female scores and low female/male scores

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26
Q

How many chromosomes are there in the body?

A

46 chromosomes, 23 pairs

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27
Q

What chromosome does a typical egg have?

A

X

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28
Q

What chromosome do the sperm carry?

A

Half carry X

Half carry Y

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29
Q

Is it the egg or the sperm that determines the baby’s sex?

A

Sperm

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30
Q

What does SRY stand for?

A

Sex Determining Region Y

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31
Q

What carries the SRY?

A

Y chromosome

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32
Q

What does the SRY do?

A

Causes the testes to develop and produce androgens

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33
Q

What are androgens?

A

Male sex hormones

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34
Q

What is the female chromosomal structure?

A

XX

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35
Q
A
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36
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37
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38
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39
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40
Q

What is the male chromosomal structure?

A

XY

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41
Q

What are the three specification hormones?

A

Testosterone

Oestrogen

Oxytocin

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42
Q

What does testosterone do prenatally?

A

Can affect brain development (right hemisphere)

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43
Q

What does testosterone do postnatally?

A

Grow facial hair

Deeper voice

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44
Q

What does oestrogen do prenatally?

A

Smaller brain size (left hemisphere)

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45
Q

What does oestrogen do postnatally?

A

Menstrual cycle

Mood swings

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46
Q

What does oxytocin do in women?

A

Breastfeeding

Fight or flight response

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47
Q

What does oxytocin do in men?

A

Fight or flight response

But suppressed by testosterone

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48
Q

Strength of chromosomes and hormones - practical application

A

Differences in Sex Development (DSD) is a group of rare conditions, including genes, hormones and reproductive organs, including genitals

Means a person’s sex development is different to most other peoples

Sometimes the term Disorder of Sex Development is used as is Variations in Sex Characteristics (VSC) or Diverse Sex Development

Some adults and young people with DSD prefer to use the term intersex

Diagnosis and treatment

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49
Q

Limitation of chromosomes and hormones - Tricker et al

A

Gave 43 males an injection of testosterone or a placebo

No significant difference was found in aggression after 10 weeks

Used double-blind procedure, reducing experimenter bias and demand characteristics, increasing internal validity of experiment

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50
Q

Strength of chromosomes and hormones - Bruce/Brenda/David Reimer

A

Nature overpowered nurture

Bruce had surgery that resulted in penis being burnt off and being castrated

Brought up as a girl (Brenda)

Told that she was born as a biological male and chose to transition back (David)

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51
Q

Limitation of chromosomes and hormones - counterpoint to David Reimer study - case studies

A

Cannot generalise to whole population

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52
Q

What is the chromosomal structure of Klinefelter’s Syndrome?

A

XXY

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53
Q

What is the diagnosis rate for Klinefelter’s Syndrome?

A

1 in 600 males

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54
Q

What are the physical characteristics of Klinefelter’s Syndrome?

A

Reduced body hair

Some breast development

Underdeveloped genitals

More susceptible to health problems (usually problems associated with females)

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55
Q

What are the psychological characteristics of Klinefelter’s Syndrome?

A

Poorly developed language skills and reading ability

Shy

Passive

Lacking interest in sexual activity

Tend not to respond well to stressful situations

Problems with executive functions (problem-solving)

56
Q

What are the hormonal differences for Klinefelter’s Syndrome?

A

Higher levels of oestrogen

Lower levels of testosterone

57
Q

What is the chromosomal structure of Turner’s Syndrome?

A

XO

58
Q

What is the diagnosis rate of Turner’s Syndrome?

A

1 in 5000 females

59
Q

What are the physical characteristics of Turner’s Syndrome?

A

No menstrual cycle

Broad “shield” chest and no developing of breasts

Low-set ears

“Webbed” neck

Hips not that much bigger than waist

Sterile

60
Q

What are the psychological characteristics of Turner’s Syndrome?

A

Higher-than-average reading ability

Lower-than-average performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical tasks

Socially immature

61
Q

Limitation of atypical sex chromosome patterns - socially sensitive research

A

Individual’s expectations might be limited

Employers could discriminate against them

Minority group

Parents could feel guilty

62
Q

Strength of atypical sex chromosome patterns - practical application

A

Treatments

Diagnosis

63
Q

Limitation of atypical sex chromosome patterns - cause of psychological characteristics

A

Klinefelter - shy - could be low self-esteem and comparing to others

Turner - social immaturity - fertility issues/periods, lack maturity because not getting period at same time of others

Self-fulfilling prophecy

64
Q

What does a universal theory mean?

A

The theory applies everywhere

65
Q

What does maturational mean?

A

Complexity of thinking about gender develops as you get older

66
Q

What is self-socialisation?

A

Process of how we learn stereotypes

67
Q

What does Kohlberg’s Cognitive Theory state?

A

Focuses on how children’s thinking changes as they get older

Suggests cognitive changes with maturation are universal

Emphasises a stage approach to gender development?

68
Q

What are the three stages of gender development according to Kohlberg’s Theory?

A

Gender identity

Gender stability

Gender consistency/constancy

69
Q

When is the gender identity stage?

A

0-3 years

70
Q

What happens in the gender identity stage?

A

Children are able to correctly identity themselves as male or female

Understanding of gender limited to labelling

No sense of permanence of gender

71
Q

When is the gender stability stage?

A

4-5 years

72
Q

What happens in the gender stability phase?

A

Children realise they will stay the same gender

Can’t apply gender logic to other people and other situations

73
Q

When is the gender consistency/constancy stage?

A

6-12 years

74
Q

What happens in the gender consistency/constancy stage?

A

Understand that other people’s gender is consistent even if they dress differently (across time and situation)

75
Q

What stage does self-socialisation (creating schemas) occur in?

A

Gender consistency/constancy

76
Q

Strength of gender stability - Slaby and Frey questions

A

Were you a boy or a girl when you were a baby?

When you grow up will you be a mummy or a daddy?

Only children aged 3-4 could answer these questions correctly

77
Q

Strength of gender constancy - Slaby and Frey split-screen

A

Made children watch a split screen with one side showing a female doing stereotypical activities and the other side showing a male doing stereotypical activities

Children who were categorised as high constancy watched their “model” whereas low constancy children watched both models

78
Q

Strength of gender identity - Thompson

A

Are you a boy or a girl?

76% correct at age 2

90% correct at age 3

As children mature, they have a better understanding of gender identity

79
Q

Limitation of Kohlberg’s theory - interviewing children

A

Less vocabulary

Demand characteristics

Inconsistent answers

80
Q

What are schemas?

A

Mental packages of information of gender-appropriate behaviours based on experiences

81
Q

According to GST, when are schemas fixed?

A

6 years old

82
Q

According to GST, what happens to non-stereotypical information?

A

It is deleted or manipulated

83
Q

When did Martin and Halverson (GST) believe self-socialisation/learning stereotypes happen)

A

During the gender identity stage

2-3 years old

84
Q

When do ingroups schemas start?

A

Created first

2-3 years

85
Q

What are ingroup schemas?

A

The group with which a person identifies

86
Q

When do outgroup schemas start forming?

A

Age 8

87
Q

What are outgroup schemas?

A

Refers to the groups which you believe are different to you

88
Q

How does the child evaluate the ingroup and outgroup?

A

Positively evaluate ingroup, ensuring they are similar

Negatively evaluate outgroup, avoiding their behaviours

89
Q

AO3 - Is GST nature of nurture?

A

Both but mainly nurture

90
Q

AO3 - Is GST believe in free will or is it deterministic?

A

Deterministic

91
Q

AO3 - Is there gender bias in the GST?

A

Beta bias: males and females develop gender schemas in the same way

However, boys are more stereotypical than girls

92
Q

AO3 - Is there cultural bias in the GST?

A

Can explain cultural differences because people have different experiences to create their schemas

93
Q

AO3 - Is the GST socially sensitive?

A

Not too bad

94
Q

Strength of GST - Martin and Halverson

A

Children, under age 6, were shown photographs with either gender consistent or inconsistent behaviour

Asked to recall photos a week later

More gender consistent photos remembered better

Gender inconsistent photos manipulated

95
Q

Limitation of GST - Hoffman

A

Children whose mothers work have less stereotypical views of what men do

Children are not entirely fixed in their view but are reception to some gender-inconsistent ideas

Fact that gender schemas lead to misremembering or distorting information has important implications for effects to reduce gender stereotypes

96
Q

Strength of GST - Bradbard et al

A

4-9 year olds labelled gender neutral items as male or female

Children followed stereotypes and paid more attention to their ingroup items

One week later, recalled more information on their ingroup items

97
Q

Strength of GST - Martin and Little

A

Children at age 4 did not reach gender stability or consistency

But could demonstrate stereotypically attitudes

98
Q

What is identification in the psychodynamic explanation?

A

Children identity with the same sex parent

99
Q

What is internalisation in the psychodynamic explanation?

A

Children copy/remember behaviours of the same sex parent

100
Q

When do the Oedipus and Electra complex occur?

A

Phallic stage

101
Q

What is the Oedipus complex?

A

Age 3-4, boys desire their mothers sole attention

Dad is rival, fears castration (castration anxiety) and wants to eliminate him

IDENTIFICATION with father leads to INTERNALISATION of male gender identity

Repression occurs and they don’t remember hating father

Displace desire for mother onto other women

102
Q

What is the Electra complex?

A

Girl loves mum but gets penis envy and hates mum

Girl loves father

Displaces penis envy onto wanting a baby

IDENTIFIES with mum and INTERNALISES the female gender identity

103
Q

How do the Oedipus and Electra complex relate to the psychosexual stages?

A

Gender identity and role acquired in phallic stage

Before this, child has no gender identity and sexual desires directed indiscriminately

In phallic stage, focus of libido moves to genitals and development of boys and girls diverge

104
Q

Strength of psychodynamic - Little Hans

A

Freud said spend more time with dad

Little Hans identified with his father and internalised the male gender identity

Repression of castration anxiety

105
Q

Limitation of psychodynamic - counterpoint to Little Hans - problems with case studies

A

Cannot generalise - individual differences

Lacks replicability

Can’t control variables

106
Q

Limitation of psychodynamic - Green et al

A

Psychodynamic says child must grow up in a conventional nuclear family

Studied 37 children growing up in non-traditional nuclear families (transsexual or homosexual parents)

In all but one case, children developed “typical” gender identities and role behaviours

107
Q

Limitation of psychodynamic - problems with psychodynamic approach

A

Lack of falsifiability

Lack of scientific evidence

Most based on unconscious mind so unable to scientifically test

108
Q

Limitation of psychodynamic - Thompson

A

Are you a boy or a girl?

76% correct at 2

90% correct at 3

As children mature, they have a better understanding of gender identity

109
Q

How does the SLT believe gender is learnt?

A

Through observing others

110
Q

How are children encouraged to show gender-appropriate behaviour in SLT?

A

Through reinforcement

111
Q

What are the two types of indirect reinforcement?

A

Vicarious reinforcement

Vicarious punishment

112
Q

What is vicarious reinforcement?

A

If an individual’s/role model’s behaviour is rewarded, more likely to be imitated by child

113
Q

What is vicarious punishment?

A

If an individual’s/role model’s behaviour is punished, less likely to be imitated by child

114
Q

What are the mediational processes?

A

Attention

Retention

Motor reproduction

Motivation

115
Q

What is direct reinforcement?

A

Children are reinforced for GENDER-APPROPRITAE behaviours

Boys praised for being active and punished for being passive

116
Q

What is differential reinforcement?

A

Behaviour that girls and boys are praised for/reinforced with is different, which they then reproduce

Explains why boys and girls learn distinctly different GENDER BEHAVIOURS

117
Q

Strength of SLT - model behaviour

A

Smith and Lloyd

Given a baby in blue/pink clothes

Parents handed the blue baby, engaged in “rough and tumble” play and gave them male toys (hammer)

Parents handed the pink baby, complimented the baby and gave them cuddly toys

118
Q

Strength of SLT - modelling

A

Perry and Bushey

Displayed video of male/female eating fruit

Later given a choice of fruit

Copied what they’d seen earlier

119
Q

Limitation of SLT - age

A

Bandura believes modelling gender-appropriate behaviour starts at birth

At birth, babies couldn’t have motor reproduction

120
Q

Strength of SLT - Bobo doll study

A

Girls watched female role model and boys watched male role model

Imitation of same sex role models

Boys = higher physical violence

Girls = higher verbal violence

121
Q

Counterpoint to SLT Bobo doll study

A

Can’t explain difference between the violence in boys and girls

Violence

122
Q

How does media affect gender development?

A

Provides role models who children identity with and want to imitate

Typically portrays clear role models

Roles played by characters display rigid gender behaviour

Done through vicarious reinforcement

123
Q

Strength of media influence - Williams

A

Showed TV for first time to a group of children

Two years later, they had become significantly more stereotyped

124
Q

AO3 of media influence - Pingree

A

Girls = stereotyping reduced by non-stereotypical media

Boys = have a backlash and become more stereotypical

125
Q

What is gender dysphoria?

A

Where there is an inconsistency/conflict/incongruence between one’s assigned gender, on the basis of external sexual characteristics and the expressed gender or psychological perception of self as male or female

126
Q

What is Brain Sex Theory (BST) of gender dysphoria?

A

BSTc (area of the brain) is the size of the patient’s gender identity rather than biological sex

127
Q

How much larger is a males BSTc?

A

40% larger

128
Q

What size is a female with gender dysphoria’s BSTc?

A

40% larger, like males

129
Q

Limitation of BST - hormone treatment

A

Zhou et al

Examined BSTc post-mortem and after transgender individuals had received hormones during gender reassignment treatment

Hormone treatment had changed the size of the BSTc

130
Q

AO3 - counterpoint to hormone treatment

A

Post-mortems can’t establish cause and effect as can’t see the change

131
Q

Strength of BST - validity

A

2010 study of 121 transgender people

38% realised they had gender variance by age 5

White matter differences could provide independent confirmation that such children might benefit from treatment to delay puberty

132
Q

What is the psychoanalytical social influences explanation for gender dysphoria?

A

Males

Experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity is established

Want to merge with their mother creating asymbolic fusion

133
Q

What is the cognitive social influences explanation for gender dysphoria?

A

Liben and Bigler adapted GST to include gender identity disorder

Believe a child’s attitude is affected by the activities they enjoy

Adapt gender schema to include non-stereotypical information and show more flexible gender behaviour

134
Q

Strength of psychoanalytical - Zucker et al

A

Studied 115 boys with concerns about their gender identity

64% also diagnosed with separation anxiety disorder

Rekers believes it’s the fathers absence that it’s more likely to create gender dysphoria

135
Q

Limitation of cognitive - reductionism

A

Very little information about why a child may have interest in non-stereotypical activities and information

Psychology (11 decks)

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