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Aqa a level psychology > Research methods > Flashcards

Research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Why do psychologists carry out research

A

to find answers to questions they ask and collect data for real implication

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2
Q

What is the difference between primary and secondary data

A

-Primary research = the information the psychologist collects for the purpose of their aims

-Secondary research = pieces of information that already exist and are collected by others

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3
Q

What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative data

A

qualitative data = harder to analyze but gives rich detailed information that explains complex human behaviour

-quantitative data –> easy to put into a computer and analyse

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4
Q

What are the stages of the research project

A

1) Developing the aims of the research

2) Pilot studies

3) selecting samples + experimental design

4) collecting the data

5) analysing the data

6) Evaluating the project

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5
Q

What occurs during developing the aims of research

A

outline intentions and purpose of research, predicting what you will find

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6
Q

What occurs during pilot studies

A

decide on your research method and do a small scale pilot to check if it will work

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7
Q

What occurs during selecting samples and experimental design

A

select the group of people you will study and how you will group participants

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8
Q

What occurs during collecting, analysing and evaluating data

A

4) collecting the data —> go out and collect data using research method chosen

5) analysing the data –> place data into tables/graphs and apply statistical tests to find patterns

6) Evaluating the project –> research conclusions, strengths + limitations, suggest practical application, future research

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9
Q

What are the aims of pilot studies

A

small scale trial run of the investigation, check the procedures/material, allow researcher to make modifications if necessary

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10
Q

Why should psychologists use a pilot study

A

-check for errors/identify potential issues

-save money/time in the long run

-ensure research method is appropriate and not ambiguous

  • check to see if research is ethical
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11
Q

Define the experimental method

A

involves manipulating one variable to determine if these changes cause changes in another variable. This method relies on high levels of control to test a hypothesis

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12
Q

What is a research aim

A

a general statement about what the researcher intends to investigate (purpose of research study

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13
Q

define a variable

A

things in the investigation that are manipulated, measured and controlled,

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14
Q

what is the independent variable

A

an aspect of the research situation that is manipulated

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15
Q

what is the dependent variable

A

the variable in the experimental situation that is measured by the researcher and should be caused by the independent variable.

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16
Q

what is operationalise

A

to be precise and clear about what is being manipulated and measured (testable and repeatable)

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17
Q

what is a hypothesis

A

statement of what you believe is true

what researcher predicts will happen

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18
Q

what are the steps to forming a hypothesis

A

1) possible hypothesis

2) 2 independent variables and another possible hypothesis

3) Operationalising the independent variables

4) operationalize the dependent variable

5) fully operationalised hypothesis

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19
Q

what is the difference between a directional and non directional hypothesis

A

Directional hypothesis –> Participants who….will…compared to participants who

Non-directional hypothesis –> There will be a difference in…between…and…

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20
Q

when would each hypothesis be used

A

A directional hypothesis is used if there is an agreeable outcome whereas a non-directional hypothesis is used if the previous research is contradictory/there is limited research.

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21
Q

what are the 4 types of experiments

A

lab experiment
field experiment
natural experiment
quasi experiment

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22
Q

what are lab experiments

A

an experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect of the DV whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables e.g bobo doll

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23
Q

what are field experiments

A

an experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV – some variables cannot be controlled due to unpredictability of a public setting

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24
Q

what are natural experiments

A

an experiment where the change is not brought by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. Participants cannot be randomly allocated to experimental groups as they are already pre set environments e.g capture people in daily life

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25
Q

what are quasi experiments

A

a study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients, the IV has not been determined by anyone and the variables simply exist e.g being older or younger. E.g adoption rates

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26
Q

what are strengths and limitations of lab experiments

A

Strengths of Lab experiments –> controlled environment; we can easily see changes and what caused it. Replicable and extraneous variables are removed

Limitations of Lab experiments –> lacks ecological validity; the ability to repeat the experiment in a real world setting cannot apply to everyday life

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27
Q

what are strengths and limitations of field experiments

A

Strengths of field experiments –> more realistic to daily life –> done in an environment that is more natural which means that results produced may be more valid and authentic especially if participants are unaware of the experiment

Limitations of field experiments –> loss of control over extraneous variables and lacks ethics due to concerns around consent/privacy

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28
Q

what are strengths and limitations of natural experiments

A

Strengths of the natural experiment –> provides opportunities for research; high external validity because they involve the sway of real life issues and problems as they happen

Limitations of natural experiment –> participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental decisions which means researcher may be less sure whether the IV affected the DV

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29
Q

what are strengths and limitations of the quasi experiment

A

Strengths of the quasi experiment –> controlled conditions which share strengths of lab experiments

Limitations of quasi experiment –> cannot randomly allocate ppts to conditons and therefore may be confounding variables

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30
Q

what are the 3 types of experimental design

A

independent groups
repeated measures design
matched pair designs

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31
Q

what are independent groups

A

different participants are used in each condition of the IV. This means that each condition of the experiment includes a different group of participants which should be done by random allocation. 2 groups

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32
Q

what are repeated measures design

A

the same participants take place in each condition of the IV

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33
Q

what are the matched pairs design

A

pairs of participants are matched depending on variables. One of the pair goes to control group and the other goes to the experimental group

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34
Q

what are advantages and disadvantages of independent groups

A

Advantages –> avoids order effects e.g fatigue as people participate in one condition only

Disadvantages –> differences between participants may affect results e.g variations in age

Random allocation deals with limitations (participant variables) through computer generator and anonymised name draws

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35
Q

what are advantages and disadvantages of repeated measures design

A

Advantages –> participant varibales are reduced and controlled, easier to conduct due to fewer participants needed

Disadvantages –> order effects arise due to repeating 2 tasks, Acts as a confounding variable and performance varies

Counterbalancing –> half participants take part in condition A then B and reverse for other half (B then A)

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36
Q

what are advantages and disadvantages to the matched pairs design

A

Advantage –> order effects and demand characteristics are less of a problem due to one conditioned group per participant

Disadvantages –> hard to reduce participant variables and matching can be time consuming/expensive, impossible to match people exactly

Random allocation –> randomly assigned to conditions

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37
Q

Define extraneous variables

A

variables that are not the IV but could affect the DV if not controlled e.g time of day, noise distraction etc

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38
Q

name the 4 potential extraneous variables

A

demand characteristics
investigator effects
situational variables
participant variables

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39
Q

what are demand characteristics

A

changing your behaviour to how participants think the experimenter wants them to react

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40
Q

how can demand characteristics be controlled

A

deception (lying about true aims of the study),
single blind design or
double blind design

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41
Q

what are investigator effects

A

any clues from the researcher that encourage certain behaviours in the participant) e.g indirect investigator effects – the measurement of the variables may be carried out in a way which makes the desired outcome more likely

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42
Q

how can investigator effects be controlled

A

a double blind design, interrater reliability (researcher checks results) and standardized instructions (pre written script)

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43
Q

what are situational variables

A

features of research situation that may affect participants behaviour for example order effects

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44
Q

how can situational variables be controlled

A

standardized procedures and standardized instructions and counterbalance which eliminates order effects

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45
Q

what experimental designs include participant variables

A

independent groups
matched pairs design

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46
Q

how can you control participant variables

A

random allocation can be done/randomisation of biases

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47
Q

what happens if extraneous variables are failed to be controlled

A

confounding variables may occur that damages the internal validity of an experiment

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48
Q

define a population

A

a group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest from which a sample is drawn

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49
Q

define a sample

A

a group of people who take part in a research investigation, The sample is drawn from a target population and is presumed to be representative of that population

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50
Q

define sampling techniques

A

the method used to collect a sample

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51
Q

define a bias

A

when certain groups may be over of under represented within the sample selected (limits generalisation)

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52
Q

define generalisation

A

the extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is more possible if the sample of participants is representative of the population

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53
Q

what are the 5 sampling techniques

A

-random sampling
-stratified sampling
-systematic sampling
-volunteer sample
-opportunity sample

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54
Q

what is random sampling

A

all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected e.g names randomly picked from a list

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55
Q

what is systematic sampling

A

chosen for selecting from a target group. Differs to random sampling as it does not give an equal chance of selection to each individual in the target group e.g every 4th person in a list is used

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56
Q

what is stratified sampling

A

composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain groups within the population

select participants in groups from a specific target population

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57
Q

what is an opportunity sample

A

the researchers simply decide to select any participants who happen to be willing and available e.g someone passing by on a street

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58
Q

what is a volunteer sample

A

the participants choose to be part of the sample

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59
Q

what are the advantages an disadvantages of random sampling

A

Advantages –> free from researcher bias

Disadvantages –> difficult and time consuming to conduct as obtaining a list of the target population may be difficult and participants may not want to take part

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60
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages from systematic sampling

A

Advantages –> assuming the list order has been randomised, this method offers an unbiased chance of gaining a representative sample

Disadvantages –> if the list has been assembled in any other way bias may be present

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61
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of stratified sampling

A

Advantages –> avoids researcher bias and produces a representative sample so generalisation is possible

Disadvantages –> stratification is not perfect, separate conditions must be met properly

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62
Q

what is the disadvantages and advantages of an opportunity sample

A

Strengths –> it is convenient – this method saves the researcher time and is less costly

Limitations –> researcher bias as has complete control over participants and the sample is unrepresentative of the target population as it is drawn from a specific areaw

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63
Q

what is an advantage and disadvantage of a volunteer sample

A

Advantages –> it is easy to collect the sample and requires minimal input from the researcher

Disadvantages –> volunterr bias

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64
Q

define ethical issues

A

arise when a conflict exits between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data

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65
Q

what are the 6 ethical issues

A

-confidentiality/privacy
-deception
-informed consent
-debrief
-right to withdraw
-protection from harm

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66
Q

what is confidentiality/privacy/anonymity

A

Anonymity means data is not identifiable by their name. Confidentiality refers to how the data is stored and who sees it. Privacy is about not listening to what a person is saying or looking at what they are doing. Privacy is a particular issue in observational studies

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67
Q

what is deception (ethical guidelines)

A

participants must be told more or less what they are doing so that they are not completely deceived. This could make them feel bad after the experiment

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68
Q

what is informed consent

A

participants may only participate if they have consented to take part before the study knowing all the information involved

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69
Q

what is debrief

A

participants must be told that they have the right to remove themselves or any of their data from the study. They also have the opportunity to talk to the experiments to know the true names of the study after the experiment

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70
Q

what is the right to withdraw

A

The participants are told that they can remove themselves from the study at any time. They are told how to withdraw and how to not be harmed when withdrawing

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71
Q

what is protection of participants

A

participants must be managed so they can exit the study unharmed –> counselling sessions can be provided by the researcher if necessary

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72
Q

what does ethics refer to a balance between

A

costs and benefits

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73
Q

who is responsible for the ethical guidelines in Britain

A

BPS (british psychological society)

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74
Q

what are 3 ways to deal with consent if it is impractical to get informed consent

A

-presumptive consent –> similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable

-prior general consent –> participants give their permission to take part in a number of different studies involving on of deception

-retrospective consent –> participants are asked for their consent after the study

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75
Q

what are two ways of dealing with confidentiality

A

-anonymity
-reminding participants that their data will be protected

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76
Q

define overt observation

A

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and informed consent

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77
Q

what are strengths and limitations of overt observation

A

Strengths: more ethically acceptable

Limitations: participants may change their behaviour If they know they are being watched

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78
Q

define covert observation

A

participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their consent and knowledge

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79
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of covert observation

A

Strengths: removes the problem of participant reactivity so increased validity

Limitations: ethics of privacy are questioned

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80
Q

define participant observation

A

researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are recording and watching

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81
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of participant observation

A

Strengths: increased insight and increased validity of finding

Limitations: going native (loosing objectivity of the experiment)

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82
Q

define non-participant observation

A

the researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are watching

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83
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of non-participant observation

A

Strengths: Less danger of going native as a physical distance is kept

Limitations: loose valuable insight (too far removed)

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84
Q

define naturalistic observation (unstructured)

A

provides qualitative data - no structure and records all behaviour in a descriptive way

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85
Q

define structured observation

A

researcher has various systems to organise the recordings of observations e.g behaviour categories or time scanning

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86
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of structured observation

A

Strengths: more efficient, easier to interpret, put in graphs and make comparisons

Limitations: reduced to few characteristics

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87
Q

what are the two types of observational structures

A

behavioural categories and sampling procedures

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88
Q

what are the 3 requirements for behavioural categories

A

Operationalise –> breaking the behaviour into a set of components

Be objective –> no inferences to be made about the behaviour. Simply just recording

Be mutually exclusive –> no overlapping, you should not have to mark 2 categories at the same time

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89
Q

what are the two sampling procedures (un/structured observation)

A

Event sampling –> recording the number of times something happens

Time sampling –> recording behaviours in a given time frame e.g what someone is doing every 30 minutes

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90
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of event sampling

A

Strengths –> faster to produce and easier to analyse

Limitations –> too many observations happen at once so may be difficult to record. If the event is complex, specific details may be missed

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91
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of time sampling

A

Strengths –> reduces the number of observations to be made. Fixates on set periods of time so is more focused and reduces chances of fatigue

Limitations –> some behaviours will be missed and therefore observation may not be representative

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92
Q

What are the three levels of measurement

A

nominal
ordinal
interval

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93
Q

what is nominal data

A

(data in separate categories) e.g attachment types – used for graphs etc

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94
Q

what is ordinal data

A

(Data placed in a specific order or scale) e.g organizing people from least to most aggressive – highly subjective and used for calculating range

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95
Q

what is interval data

A

(Data measured using units of equal interval) e.g number of correct answers –> used for standard deviation

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96
Q

what are the measures of central tendency

A

mean
median
mode

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97
Q

what is mean and its strengths/limitations

A

average number – calculate by adding all data items and divide by number of data items. Used for interval data

Strengths –> most sensitive measure as utilises all values

Limitations –> can be distorted by extreme values so unrepresentative

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98
Q

what is median and its strengths/limitations

A

middle value in data set – all items are arranged in order and middle number is left – used in interval and ordinal data

Strengths –> not affected by extremes

Limitations –> not sensitive as exact values are not reflected

99
Q

what is mode and its strengths/limitations

A

Mode –> most common value – used in all three (nominal, ordinal and interval)

Strengths –> unaffected by extreme values

Limitations –> not always useful (more than one common choice)

100
Q

what are two measures of dispersion

A

range
standard deviations

101
Q

what is range and its strengths/limitations

A

difference in set of data - highest value – smallest value. Useful for data which is finding the same mean but has different ranges.

Strengths —> easy to calculate

Limitations –> affected by extreme values which might skew data

102
Q

what is standard deviation and its strengths/limitations

A

Standard deviation –> provides information about the distribution of scores around the mean e.g how spread out the scores are from the mean – used to measure the average distance between each data item

Strengths –> precise measure as it takes all exact values

Limitations –> may hide some of the characteristics of data set

–> the smaller the standard deviation the more narrow the range and the larger the population the more normal distribution.

103
Q

what is normal distribution

A

bell curve shape
mean,median and mode are all in the middle

104
Q

what is negative skew

A

-majority of participants score high so tail on self is longer than right. mode is more than mean/median

105
Q

what is positive skew

A

-majority of participants score low so tail on right side is longer. Mode is less then mean/median

106
Q

what are 3 types of graphs

A

bar charts
histograms
scatter graphs

107
Q

what are bar charts

A

height of each bar represents the frequency. The categories are x axis and the frequency is the y axis. Bar charts are non continuous data e.g nominal data and a space is left between each bar to indicate this.

108
Q

what is a histogram

A

The x axis must be continual so no categories and there should be no gaps between bars. Used for interval and ordinal data

109
Q

what is a scatter graph

A

used for correlation analysis. Provides initial indication if there is a relationship between two variables

110
Q

what is a co-variable

A

variables investigated within a correlation e.g height. plotted by a scatter graph

111
Q

what is a correlation co-efficient

A

value that states the strength of the correlation

112
Q

what is a perfect positive correlation

A

+1.0

113
Q

what is a perfect negative correlation

A

-1.0

114
Q

what is a positive correlation

A

if one thing increases so does the other

115
Q

what is a negative correlation

A

if one thing increases, the other either increases or decreases

116
Q

what is the difference between a directional and non-directional correlation hypothesis

A

Directional —> There will be a relationship between…As…increases…this increases showing a positive correlation

Non-directional –> There will be a relationship between…As…increases…this either increases or decreases.

117
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of correlations

A

Strengths of correlations –> can be used as starting points to assess patterns between co-variables before committing to an experimental study, quick to carry out, secondary data can be used

Limitations of correlations –> difficult to establish cause and effect relationship. Correlations can be misinterpretated.

118
Q

what is the peer review process

A

1) scientists conduct research

2) scientists write their results

3) journal editor receives an article and sends it out for peer review

4) peer reviewers read the article and provide feedback to the editor

5) editor may send reviewer comments to scientists who may revise their article and sends it back. If does not meet standards it will be rejected

6) if an article meets the peer standards it is published in a journal

119
Q

typically how many peer reviewers are there

A

1-3

120
Q

what are peer reviewers

A

other psychologists who are experts in the same field of research check work for validity

121
Q

what do peer reviewers consider

A

-influence of extraneous variables

-whether the data collected is appropriate and accurately recorded

-whether the research method was suitable for the aims of the study

-interpretation of finding/valid claims

122
Q

who is cyril burtt

A

example of a psychologist who has been discredited for tampering with the numbers in his research - controversial as he helped created the 11+ exams for schools

123
Q

what are research papers

A

academic writing that has been published

124
Q

what are purposes of peer review

A

-to know which research is worthwhile and hence funding can be allocated to it

-to validate the relevance and quality of research (prevent fraudulent)

-to suggest possible improvements or amendments

125
Q

what are limitations of peer review

A
  • anonymity is a problem – affects objectivity of viewers

-publication bias involved in peer review – negative reports not published

-It can be difficult to find an expert

-Any research that opposes mainstream theories tends to be suppressed – rate of change is slowed down

-Fraudulent research can be long lasting

126
Q

define validity

A

refers to how well a test or a piece of research measures what it says it
measures

127
Q

what is a null hypothesis

A

There will be no difference in the number of words spoken in one minute by participants who drink energy drinks and water. Any difference will be due to chance.

128
Q

what are statistical tests used to determine

A

whether a difference or an association is statistically significant – more than could happen by chance. This is then used to decide whether we should accept or reject the null hypothesis

129
Q

what are the 3 factors to decide whether a test should be used

A

–> Difference or correlation

—> Experimental design –> independent groups (unrelated), repeated measures (related), matched pairs (related) - not relevant to correlations

—> Levels of measurement –> ordinal (unsafe data as lacks precision and is a subjective scale), nominal (discrete data as each item can only appear in one category), interval (most precise and necessary for parametric tests)

130
Q

what are parametric tests

A

parametric tests are much more robust than other tests, they are able to detect significance within data sets that non-parametric tests cannot.

131
Q

what are some examples of parametric tests

A

related t-test
unrelated t-test
Pearson’s R

132
Q

what is the criteria that must be met for parametric tests

A

1) data must be interval

2) Data should have been drawn from a population thus showing a normal distribution

3) should be homogeneity of variance (scores in each condition should have similar dispersion which can be determined by standard deviations in each condition – related design)

133
Q

nominal data

A

mode and no measure of dispersion

134
Q

ordinal data

A

median and range

135
Q

interval data

A

mean and standard deviation

136
Q

what are the three steps to the simon cowell thingy

A

-test of difference/association
-related or unrelated design if is a test of difference
-level of measurement

137
Q

what is a nominal related design test

A

sign test

138
Q

what is an ordinal related design test

A

Wilcoxon

139
Q

what is an interval related design test

A

related t-test

140
Q

what is an unrelated nominal test

A

chi-squared

141
Q

what is an unrelated ordinal test

A

Mann-whitney

142
Q

what is an unrelated interval test

A

unrelated t-test

143
Q

what is a nominal test of association

A

chi-squared

144
Q

what is an ordinal test of association

A

spearman’s rho

145
Q

what is an interval test of association

A

pearson’s r

146
Q

what is the usual level of significance in psychology

A

0.05 or 5% p ≤ 0.05

147
Q

what does 0.05 or 5% p ≤ 0.05 mean

A

the probability of the observed/measured effect happening by chance is equal to or less than 5%. This means that in research where they claim to have found a significant difference/correlation there is still a 5% chance it was a fluke. Psychologists can never be 100% certain of their results as they have not tested everyone in the world in every conditions

148
Q

how do you use the table of critical values

A

1) one or two tailed test –> one tailed is a directional hypothesis and two tailed is a non-directional hypothesis

2) number of participants (usually appears as the N value on the table or DF)

3) Level significance –> known as the P value. p<0.05 is the standard level

149
Q

what is the rule of R

A

some statistical tests require the calculated value to be equal to or more than the critical value

150
Q

what statistical tests have a calculated value more than/equal to (unsignificant)

A

-chi-squared
-spearman’s rho
-related t-test
-unrelated t-test
-pearson’s r

151
Q

what statistical tests have a calculated value less than/equal to

A

-sign test
-wilcoxon
-mann whitney

152
Q

what are the statistical tests

A

-sign test
-wilcoxon
-mann whitney
-chi-squared
-spearman’s rho
-related t-test
-unrelated t-test
-pearson’s R

153
Q

what is a Type I error

A

null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted when in reality the null hypothesis is true. This is an optimistic error or a false positive. When retesting should use 1%

154
Q

what is a Type II error

A

The null hypothesis is accepted when it should have been rejected. This is a pessimistic error or a negative error. 10% should be used when retesting

155
Q

how do you calculate the sign test

A

1) state the hypothesis (null or alternate)

2) If alternate hypothesis check if it is one or two tailed

3) work our values which increased, decreased or stayed the same

4) calculate total participants by subtracting the amount of people who stayed the same

5) Calculate the observed value (lower value of what either increased or decreased)

6) Find the critical value of S from the table provided (level significance will be 0.05

156
Q

what is needed for the data to be significant (alternate hypothesis to be accepted)

A

observed value should be less than or equal to the critical value

157
Q

why would a study lack validity

A
  • the method of measurement doesn’t measure what it claims to measure.
  • there are extraneous or confounding variables that affect the measurement.
158
Q

define empirical

A

a scientific approach based on gathering evidence through observation and experience.

159
Q

what are the features of science

A

-empirical
-objective
-replicable
-falsifiable
-theory construction and deduction
-paradigm and paradigm shift
-inductive and deductive

160
Q

what is objectivity

A

observation without bias

161
Q

what is replicability

A

Being able to repeat a study to check the validity of the results across other contexts/circumstances

162
Q

what is falsifability

A

scientific statements are capable of being proven wrong. Popper argues that this is a key criteron for a scientific discipline, he proposed the theory of falsification. Successful theories have been constantly falsified and not proven false yet. Sciences that cannot be proven are called pseudo-sciences e.g Freud’s oedipus complex. Theories which survive more falsify attempts are the strongest.

163
Q

what is paradigm

A

A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods in a scientific discipline. Kuhn suggests that paradigm’s are what separates scientific disciplines from non-scientific disciplines. He also believes that a paradigm shift shows progress in science. Psychology that has too many conflicting ideas is referred to as pre-science

164
Q

what is a paradigm shift

A

revolutionary changes in scientific assumption

165
Q

define inductive

A

use evidence from observation to formulate theories

166
Q

define deductive

A

conclusions are taken from inference, these are tested leading to theory adjustment

167
Q

what is theory construction and deduction

A

a theory refers to a set of general principles and laws which can be used to explain specific events and behaviours. Theory construction takes place through gathering evidence from direct observation during investigations. Deduction refers to the process of deriving new hypothesis from an already existing theory

168
Q

arguments for is psychology a science

A

Cognitive approach –> uses empirical methods in highly controlled lab conditions

Biological approach –> Objective scientific data used to support theories with high levels of control

-Eye witness testimony (Pardigm shift)

-scientific methods are in many research studies giving them scientific credibility

-findings positvely impact individuals

169
Q

arguments for psychology is both a science and not

A

-nature vs nurture

-systematic desensitization and medicine (treat phobais)

-client centered therapies and antidepressants (treat depression)

170
Q

arguments for psychology is not a science

A

Psychodynamic approach –> not objective

-Humanistic approach –> not replicable

-experiment interpretations can be subjective

-not all research is generalisable e.g case studies

171
Q

what is the structure of determining the significance of a value

A

The result of the…(test) is significant/not significant. The calculated value is greater/less than the critical level value by…where n=….for a one/two tailed hypothesis with a p<0.05. The null hypothesis can be rejected/accepted and the alternate hypothesis is rejected/accepted.

172
Q

Explain why stratified sampling might improve this study

A

1) more representative = generalisation
2) reduces researcher bias

173
Q

explain what is meant by primary data

A

data collected first hand by the researcher for the purpose of their aims

174
Q

explain one reason why mean would be the most appropriate measure of central tendency

A

1) most representative
2) most sensitive

175
Q

discuss the purpose of counterbalancing

A

-reduces effect of order effects
-A-B B-A (intermintent turns)
-However does not eliminate order effects as 2 separate tasks are complete by each person

176
Q

what are the steps to planning a practical research

A

1)write research question

2)write operationalised one tailed hypothesis

3)describe method and procedure –> method/design, IV, DV, sampling method, material used, ethics, timings, controls, how data is obtained

4)state how you will analyse data

5)describe advantage of experimental design

6)outline one way you would take ethical issues into account

7)discuss ecological validity

8)evaluate sampling method

9)identify one disadvantage and how this will be overcome

177
Q

define reliability

A

how consistent the results are

178
Q

define validity

A

the extent to which a research method measures what it is designed to measure

179
Q

what are the types of validity

A

external
internal
population
ecological
temporal

180
Q

what is external validity

A

related more to factors outside of the investigation such as generalising to other settings, other populations and other areas

181
Q

what is internal validity

A

refers to whether the effects observed in an experiment are due to the manipulation of the IV and not some other factor

182
Q

what is population validity

A

ability to reasonably generalise findings from a sample to a larger population

183
Q

what is ecological validity

A

the extent to which findings can be generalised to other settings (real world)

184
Q

what is temporal validity

A

The extent to which findings hold true over time (not outdated) –> Freud’s penis envy doesnt have temporal validity

185
Q

what are the two ways to test validity

A

-Face validity –> whether a test, scale or measure appears to measure what its supposed to measure. This can be done through eyeballing the measuring instrument or passing it onto an expert

-Concurrent validity –> results obtained are very close to another recognized and well established test. Close agreement between two sets of data would indicate that the test has high concurrent validity

186
Q

what factors reduce the validity of a study

A

demand characteristics
investigator effects
individual differences

187
Q

how can you improve validity

A

-Demand characteristics and investigator effects can be controlled using a single or double blind technique.

-Individual differences can be controlled through experimental design. Using either a repeated measures or matched pairs design reduces the likelihood of individual differences affecting the results, as the same participants take part in each condition. However, if a repeated measures design is used; other factors such as fatigue can affect internal validity

-Designing a pilot study is often one of the best ways to check that everything in your actual experiment will run smoothly which will improve the validity of results. It helps the researcher to identify any practical problems with the research method, design and so on. Pilot studies can also check items on a questionnaire to make sure they are easy to answer and unambigious

-to improve external validity research should be replicated

188
Q

how can you assess reliability

A

-Test-retest –> involves administering the same test or questionnaire to the same person on different occasions. To be reliable the results obtained should be the same or similar. The set of scores obtained would be correlated

-Inter-observer reliability –> relevant to observation research as researchers interpretation of events may be subjective or biased. There should be 2 observers to check the observers are applying behavioral categories in the same way

189
Q

how can you improve reliability

A

-Experimental research –> using a control group, standardise procedures to minimise participant reactivity and investigator effects, The use of single or double blind procedures

-Questionnaires –> incorporate a lie scale to control social desirability bias and use anonymous data

-Observations –> covert observation + behavioural categories

-Qualitative methods –> triangulation and case studies/interviews

190
Q

How do you answer a 12 or 9 marker in the research method section

A

Each paragraph must have the subheading of each bullet point provided

Only answer what is asked in the questions

KEY TERMS!!!

be specific in details and comprehensive

191
Q

what is descriptive analysis another word for

A

measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion

192
Q

what is one limitation of controlled observation

A

lacks ecological validity

193
Q

structure for answering the suitability of experimental designs

A

Which experimental design is used…..why it is appropriate….context of the study

194
Q

explain why statistical testing is used in psychological research

A

-tells us whether the hypothesis should be accepted (alternate) or rejected (null)
-tells us if it is statistically significant

195
Q

structure of 9/12 marker research methods

A

Title e.g same task for participants
standardisation is very important…..in this study…..to control this….it would also be necessary

196
Q

9 and 12 marker

A

9 marker –> 4 points per paragraph

12 marker –> 3 points per paragraph

197
Q

participant variables

A

individual differences e.g someone might be older or better at the task than others thus reducing validity

198
Q

how many paragraphs do you write for an 8 marker

A

3 paragaphs
1 AO1
2 AO3

199
Q

extended RM questions

A

-for 4 bullet points do 3 points per paragraph

-You can draw diagrams for RM questions

200
Q

questionnaires vs interviews

A

-Questionnaires –> assess a persons thoughts or experiences through a number of different written questions

-Interviews –> involves a live encounter where a set of questions is asked by an interviewer to an interviewee to assess their thoughts or experiences

201
Q

types of questionnaires

A

-open question (questions are phrased in a way that the participant is free to answer however they like – qualitative data) –> rich and useful for sensitive topics but is difficult to convert to statistical data and is harder to analyse

-closed question (questions which restrict you to a fixed number of responses – quantitative data e.g rating scales)

—> easy to analyse data and compare but lacks depth and detail

202
Q

strengths of questionnaires

A

-cost-effective

-gathers large amounts of data quickly

-researcher does not need to be present

-easier to analyse

-responses can be anonymous

203
Q

Limitations of questionnaires

A

-difficult to know target population

-takes a long time to design

-difficulty to assess validity due to biases

-participant bias is present e.g age

-response bias

204
Q

types of interviews

A

-structured (involves a set of predetermined questions asked during the interview – waits for a suitable response) –> easily replicable, comparisons can easily be made but interview bias is present and social desirability bias

-unstructured (no pre-determined questions and instead it develops as the interview continues – more free flowing) –> lots of detailed data is collected and can be tailored to individuals due to greater insight but skilled interviewers are needed, interview bias, difficult to make comparisons, hard to analyse

205
Q

what is a meta-analysis

A

A meta-analysis is where researchers combine the findings from multiple studies to draw an overall conclusion.

206
Q

consistent results

A

smaller SD -> smaller range around the mean

207
Q
A
208
Q

why do psychologists normally use the 5% level of significance in their research

A

The 5% level is used as it strikes a balance between the risk of making the Type I and II errors

209
Q

process and purpose of peer review

A

Process
* other psychologists check the research report before deciding whether it could be published
* independent scrutiny by other psychologists working in a similar field
* work is considered in terms of its validity, significance and originality
* assessment of the appropriateness of the methods and designs used
* reviewer can accept the manuscript as it is, accept with revisions, suggest the author
makes revisions and re-submits or reject without the possibility of re-submission
* editor makes the final decision whether to accept or reject the research report based on the
reviewers’ comments/recommendations
* research proposals are submitted to panel and assessed for merit.

Purposes
* to ensure quality and relevance of research, eg methodology, data analysis etc
* to ensure accuracy of findings
* to evaluate propose

210
Q

replicable =

A

standardized

211
Q

use median =

A

instead of mean if there is an anomolous result as it would skew/distotrt the data

212
Q

strenghts of controlled observations

A

-standardized procedure
-less extraneous variables
-easy to distinguish cause and effect relationship

213
Q

how to write non-directional hypothesis

A

there will be a difference between….

214
Q

standard deviation

A

-measure of scores around the mean

-smaller SD = more narrow the range between the lowest and highest score
-large population = normal distribution

215
Q

negative skew

A

mean is lower than median and mode

216
Q

significant

A

calculated value is less than or equal to critical value

217
Q

distribution of scores =

A

reference normal distribution, positive skew and negative skew

218
Q

scatter vs bar vs histogram

A

scatter = correlation analysis (+/-), 2 co-variables, ordinal data

bar = nominal, discrete (non-continious), categorical

histogram = scale, interval, continious

219
Q

t value

A

probability of observing results if the null hypothesis is correct

higher t value = lower probability
so null hypothesis is less likely to be correct

220
Q

factors affecting size of t value

A

-difference between the means (bigger difference between 2 means = larger t value) = less likely null is correct

-dispersion of data (larger dispersion = smaller t value) = more likely null is correct

-sample size (larger sample size = larger t value)

221
Q

6 parts to a report

A

abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references

222
Q

abstract

A

-start of the report
-short summary
-briefly describes aspects of a study

223
Q

introduction

A

-explains aims and hypothesis of the study
-explains what past research has found

224
Q

method

A

-how variables were measured
-type of study
-exact procedure used in enough detail so the study can be replicated

225
Q

results

A

-description of results obtained
-presentation of data
-description of how the data was analysed

226
Q

discussion

A

-statement of whether results supported hypotheis
-interpretation of results
-whether results have been replicated from other studies

227
Q

thematic analysis

A

-labels for data in thematic analysis are called codes
-then these codes are categorised into themes
-qualitative data
-data must be written up

228
Q

content analysis

A

-category and tally table

229
Q

thematic vs content analysis

A

-thematic = written data whilst content is any type of data

thematic = codes then themes but in content is it called coding units then counting this

thematic = report wiht interpretation of findings whilst content anlysis leaves a count

230
Q

content analysis strength vs thematic

A

strength –> uses statistics to test hypothesis and can draw clearer conclusions e.g find mode then do chi suqared test whilst thematic analysis doesnt involve statistical tests

thematic = subjective partcipants experiences

231
Q

content analysis

A

-Content analysis is a method used to analyse qualitative data (non-numerical data). In its most common form it is a technique that allows a researcher to take qualitative data and to transform it into quantitative data (numerical data). The technique can be used for data in many different formats, for example interview transcripts, film, and audio recordings.

The researcher conducting a content analysis will use ‘coding units’ in their work. These units vary widely depending on the data used, but an example would be the number of positive or negative words used by a mother to describe her child’s behaviour or the number of swear words in a film

232
Q

strengths and weaknesses of content analysis

A

Strengths of content analysis

It is a reliable way to analyse qualitative data as the coding units are not open to interpretation and so are applied in the same way over time and with different researchers

It is an easy technique to use and is not too time consuming

It allows a statistical analysis to be conducted if required as there is usually quantitative data as a result of the procedure

Weaknesses of content analysis

Causality cannot be established as it merely describes the data

As it only describes the data it cannot extract any deeper meaning or explanation for the data patterns arising.

233
Q

what is a case study

A

in-depth study of a person or group of people. idiographic and individualistic

234
Q

how could the researcher use thematic analysis

A

use the recordings to make a transcription of the interview
* use coding to initially analyse the transcripts
* review the transcriptions/codes looking for emergent themes/ideas that might
be linked to later aggressive behaviour, eg family violence, parental argument,
alcohol misuse.

235
Q

thematic analysis

A

organising data according to themes or categories

236
Q

positive correlation bc

A

as one co-variable increases the other co-variable increases

237
Q

non-directional hypothesis for correlation study

A

There will be a relationship between….

238
Q

controlled observation =

A

reduce extraneous variables

239
Q

inter-observer reliability in controlled observations

A

the two observers’ tally charts would be compared to check for agreement/calculate the correlation
between the recordings of the two observers to determine the level of inter-observer reliability
* researchers generally accept +0.8 correlation as a reasonable degree of reliability.

240
Q

features of an abstract in scientific report

A
  • first section of a report (accept alternative wording)
  • brief/summary/100-300 words (accept alternative wording)
  • contains (a summary of) the aims, methods, results, and conclusions (accept alternative wording)
241
Q

ecological validity =

A

events that occur in real world

242
Q

external validity =

A

generalise to people, stimuli etc

243
Q

features of science

A
  • objectivity and the empirical method
  • replicability and falsifiability
  • theory construction and hypothesis testing
  • paradigms and paradigm shifts.
244
Q

Explain what it would mean if the results in the above study were significant at the
0.01 level.

A

there is only a 1% possibility that the difference in stress ratings between the two conditions is due to
chance (not due to the breaktime 2km run)
* there is ≤ 0.01 chance that the observed difference in the stress ratings reported is not a real
difference (resulting from doing or not doing the 2km run at breaktime).

Aqa a level psychology (9 decks)

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