Approaches in psychology Flashcards
What is the mind
an internal and hidden response that relies on inferences about underlying processes on the basis of observable behaviour
What is behaviour
a response that can be measured
what is introspection
the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
when participants reflect their own cognitive processes and describe them in order to
investigate the human mind
(mention structuralism in an exam question alongside introspection as well as metronome experiment)
who is wilhem wundt
known as the founding father of psychology (1873). He established psychology as a science using the scientific method
what is structuralism
the study of the structure of the human mind by breaking down behaviours into their basic elements –> done by Wundt in controlled lab settings
what is the scientific method
1) all behaviour is seen as caused
2) if behaviour is determined then it should be possible to predict how human beings would behave in different conditions
-the method is objective, systematic and replicable
What is behaviourism
this approach emerged in the beginning of the 20th century and became the dominant approach in psychology for half that century. John B Watson and skinner rejected introspection thus brining about behaviourism as it was too vague and difficult to measure
What does the behaviourist approach study
behaviour that can be observed and measured. It is not concerned with mental processes of the mind
What did behaviourists believe about animals and humans
following Darwin behaviourists suggested that basic processes govern the same in all species so animals could replace humans as experimental subjects
What do behaviourists believe about the mind
We are born a blank slate (tabula rassa) and thus there is no genetic influence on behaviour. Behaviour is instead the result of a stimulus and the environment
What is classical conditioning
one of the behaviourist principles of learning (learning by association)
a key idea is that learning occurs when an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and a reflex response
What is the neutral stimulus in pavlov’s dog
the bell
What is the unconditioned stimulus in Pavlov’s dog
food
What is the unconditioned response in Pavlov’s dog
salivation
What is the conditioned stimulus in Pavlov’s dog
bell
What is the conditioned response in Pavlov’s dog
salivation by association
What is the order to classical conditioning
Before: NS —> NR
UCS —> UCR
During: CS + association of UCS —> UCR
After: CS —> CR
What is operant learning
another learning principle of the behaviourist approach. It works on the principle of learning by consequence. There are three types (positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment)
What is positive reinforcement
receiving an award for a certain behaviour which makes this behaviour more likely to reoccur because of positive consequences
What is negative reinforcement
Increases the likelihood of a certain behaviour occuring because it involves the removal of unpleasant consequences. The behaviour is more likely to occur because of avoidance.
What is punishment
an unpleasant consequence to a behaviour
What is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment
negative reinforcement causes positive behaviour to occur because of AVOIDANCE.
What was Pavlov’s dog experiment
experiment where the dogs associated a bell with food so began to salivate after hearing the bell. Initially the bell was a neutral stimulus but then was able to elicit a response by association
What is Skinner’s research (the skinner box)
A hungry rat would be placed in a box and there would be a lever. When pressed a pellet of food would be delivered. Soon, the rat learned the lever would result in a reward (food) so the rat continued to pull the lever. The rat had been positively reinforced.
What structure is used for evaluation responses
PEEL
What is a strength of the behaviourist approach
A real strength of the behaviourist approach is that behaviourism was able to bring the language and methods of natural sciences and psychology. Early behaviourists developed in the early work of Wundt and measured observable behaviour within controlled lab settings. For example Pavlov’s dog experiment which emphasised the importance of scientific processes such as objectivity and replicability. Behaviourism was influential in the discovery of psychology as a scientific discipline
What is another strength of the behaviourist approach
we see many applications to real life in classical and operant conditioning e.g development of systematic desensitisation used to treat phobias
What is a limitation of the behaviourist approach
A limitation is that from a behaviourist perspective animals are seen as passive and machine like responders to the environment with little or no conscious insight to their behaviour. They assume that animal behaviour can be applied and used to explain human behaviours. For example, skinner studied rats to explore operant conditioning but this may miss the complexities of human nature. Therefore a critism of the behaviourist approach is that it is very simplistic and implies humans have no control over our behaviours
What is another limitation of the behaviourist approach
-unethical as works on animals
-over-simplifies humans
What is a possible problem on lab experiments
-lab experiments lack ecological validity
-risk of experimenter bias
What is extinction
extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Overtime the learned behaviour occurs less often and returns to the neutral stimulus
What is spontaneous recovery
When the individual carries out the conditioned response some time after extinction occurs
What is the social learning theory
a way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement combining learning theory factors and cognitive factors.
What did Bandura’s SLT propose
people learn through observation and imitation of others within a social context. Learning occurs directly and indirectly through classical and operant conditioning
What is imitation
when people copy what other people do
What is identification
when a person becomes a role model because they have status, morals that align with us, are older or the same sex as us
What is modelling
How well we can imitate the role models behaviour
What is vicarious reinforcement
watching/observing other people receiving enforcement
what is mediational processes
thought prior to imitation which occurs between the behaviour and response. (cognitive factors that influence learning)
What are the 4 mediational processes
attention, retention, reproduction, motivation
What is attention
the extent to which we notice certain behaviour
What is retention
how well the behaviour is remembered
What is reproduction
the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
What is motivation
the will to perform the behaviour which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
What was bandura’s bobo doll experiment
children are split into groups and some watch adults be aggressive with the bobo doll and the others watch a more passive/subdued reaction. The children who watched the aggressive adults are more likely to imitate them.
What were the results of bandura’s SLT
Children who observed the aggressive model made far more imitative aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups.
There was more partial and non-imitative aggression among those children who had observed aggressive behavior, although the difference for non-imitative aggression was small.
The girls in the aggressive model condition also showed more physically aggressive responses if the model was male, but more verbally aggressive responses if the model was female. However, the exception to this general pattern was the observation of how often they punched Bobo, and in this case the effects of gender were reversed.
Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex models than girls. The evidence for girls imitating same-sex models is not strong.
Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls. There was little difference in verbal aggression between boys and girls.
What was the conclusion of the bobo doll experiment
Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children are able to learn social behavior such as aggression through the process of observational learning, through watching the behavior of another person.
What are strengths of the social learning theory
-SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of mediational processes
-The approach can successfully explain the initiation of certain behaviours
-SLT sees behaviours as environmentally determined where some may be innate
What are the limitations of the social learning theory
-Learning theory is not a full explanation for behaviour. This is particularly the case when there is no role model for the child to imitate from.
-Lab studies artifical nature can be critised as it doesnt reflect every day life situations
-bandura makes little reference to the impact of biological factors on social learning such as boys were more aggressive than girls in the bobo doll experiment that may be due to the hormone testosterone.
-SLT does not explain the cognitive processes and abstract notions
What are strengths of the scientific method
Empirical methods ensure knowledge is acceptable and valid, the data generated is reproducible and if recreated will yield similar results as it is objective, the result conducted is controlled which can allow researchers to establish a clear link
What are limitations of the scientific method
It can be unreliable due to little knowledge of underlying behaviour that challenges the value of introspective reports, most subject matters in psychology cannot be observed or measured, explanations of behaviour can become over-simplified.
What were the results and conclusions of Bandura’s bobo doll experiment
Results
Children who had observed aggressive behaviour were more likely to be aggressive
Boys were more physically aggressive; girls displayed more verbal aggression
Children were more likely to imitate the behaviour of the same-sex role model
Conclusion
Observing a role model show aggressive behaviour may motivate a child to imitate that aggressive behaviour in a different setting
what gave cognitive psychologists the metaphor to describe mental processes
the development of the first computer (1960s)
What are some assumptions of the cognitive approach
-assumes that the scientific and objective study of internal mental processes is possible
-the cognitive approach sees mental processes as separate from the brain
-psychologists believe that mental processes can and should be studied scientifically
-investigate areas of behaviour neglected by behaviourists e.g memory, thinking, perception
-these processes are private and cannot be observed so they are studied indirectly by making inferences
how can one study internal processes
by using theoretical models
what is the information processing approach (multi-store model)
Input (information from the environment) —> processing (how we code the information) —> output (behaviour and what you can observe)
What is a weakness of theoretical analogies
not talking account of complex human emotion –> too simplistic and reduces the mind down to be like a computer
define cognitive neuroscience
study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes that occurred due to advances in brain imaging
define schema
packages of ideas of information developed through experience. They act as a mental framework for the interpretations of incoming information
What is a PET scan
positron emission tomography –> imaging test that allows doctors to check for diseases in your body using a special dye with radioactive traces
What is a FRMI
functional, magnetic, resonance imaging —> scan that measures and maps the brain activity
what are strengths of the cognitive approach
-the cognitive approach has always employed highly controlled and rigorous methods of study to enable researchers to infer cognitive processes at work, including lab experiments which produce reliable, objective data –> this means we can test each variable accurately in a controlled way.
-the emergence of cognitive neuroscience has enabled the two fields of biology and cognitive psychology to come together. This means they study of the mind has established a credible scientific basis
-real life application – the cognitive approach is one of the most dominant approaches in psychology today has been applied to practical and theoretical concepts for example memory and looking at disorders.
-the cognitive approach is founded on soft determinism. It recognises out cognitive system can only operate within the limits of what we know but that we are free to think before we respond to a stimulus
What are limitations of the cognitive approach
-We could say that the cognitive approach is a reductionist. It reduces us down to the operations of a computer such as machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system
-Cognitive psychologists are only able to infer mental processes from the behaviour they observe in their research. It could be argued that it is too abstract and theoretical
-experimental studies of mental processes are carried out using artifical stimuli so they may lack external validity
What was the rat man experiment
-aimed to explore the effects of past experience and context on establishing a perceptual set and how we percieve certain ambigious images
-procedure –> randomly selected participants were accelerated and shown rat man with either animals or humans or a control group
-conclusion –> results supported the hypothesis that the response to the ambigious figure will be in accordance to the images that preceed it.
what are the assumptions of the biological approach
our thinking and behaviour is strongly determined by biological factors –> the structure and functioning of our nervous system and genetic/evolutionary factors
what is the genotype
genes present in each of your cells
what is the phenotype
the characteristic each individual displays as a result of the genotype
true or false - the phenotype cannot be influenced by environmental and social factors
false –> it definitely can be
what are concordance rates
the presence of the same trait in both members of a pair of twins
what is the genetic makeup of MZ and DZ twins
MZ = 100%
DZ = 50%
what can be said if the concordance rate is higher in MZ twins than DZ
factors are genetically influenced
what is the synopsis of the twin study
genes are pre-disposed rather than a determining factor
define evolution
changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
what is natural selection
behaviours are genetically determined and Is passed on from generations to increase chances of survival.
what is sexual selection
males have an abundance of sperm so can reproduce with as many females as they want. Females are limited by the amount of eggs they produce and the fact that they have to carry a baby for 9 months. Females are more particulate about choosing their partners.
what are strengths of the biological approach
credible theory that is measurable e.g twin studies / FMRI’s
-Empirical methods increase validity e.g phenotype and genotype
-real life applications –> led to development of psychoactive drugs e.g depression has been linked to a lack of serotonin which plays an important role in stabilising mood
what are limitations of the biological approach
sexual selection doesn’t consider emotion/morals and male investment
-cannot separate nature vs nurture
What is the psychodynamic approach
-a perspective that describes the different forces most of which are unconscious that operate on the mind and are direct human behaviour/experience
What are some assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
-unconscious activity is the key determinate of how we behave
-we possess innate drives (instincts) that energize our minds
-our personality (psyche) –> Id, ego, superego
-Childhood experiences have significant importance in determining out personality when we reach adulthood
what metaphor did freud use to describe the mind
the iceberg metaphor
-the tip = conscious
-below surface = unconscious (larger part that freud fixated on)
what are the 3 stages of consciousness
conscious –> pre-conscious –> unconscious
what are the key aspects of the psyche in terms of consciousness
ego = conscious
id = unconscious
superego = conscious and unconscious
what principle does the id follow and when did it develop
implulsive + selfish
-pleasure principle
-develop from birth
What principle does the ego follow and when did it develop
rational + balancing
-reality principle
-2-4 years old
What principle does the super-ego follow and when did it develop
concerned with moral norms
-morality principle
-4-5 years old
What occurs if the psychosexual conflict in a child isnt resolved
it leads to fixation where the child becomes stuck and carries certain behaviours associated through adult life
what are defence mechanisms
where the ego balances out potential conflict between the id and ego and attempts to reduce anxiety
What are the 3 defence mechanisms
repression, denial, displacement
What is repression
forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
What is denial
refusing to acknowledge some aspects of reality
What is displacement
transferring feelings from a true source of distressing emotion to a substitute target
what are freud’s 5 psychosexual stages
oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
What occurs during the oral stage
age 0-1
mothers breast is object of desire
oral fixation - smoking, nail biting, sarcastic, critical
What occurs during the anal stage
1-3 age
finds pleasure in withholding/expelling faeces
anal retentive - perfectionist/obsessive
anal expulsive - thoughtless and messy
What occurs during the phallic stage
3-5 age
Focus on pleasure of genital area. Child experiences (odepius complex and electra complex)
narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual
What occurs during the latency stage
6-12
earlier conflicts are repressed
What occurs during the genital stage
12+
Sexual desires become conscious alongside onset of puberty
-difficult in forming heterosexual relationships
What research methods were used by the psychodynamic approach
-case studies
-psychoanalysis
what research techniques were used (psychodynamic approach)
free association (expressing unconscious thoughts)
dream interpretation
What are strengths of the psychodynamic approach
–> has explanatory power through providing explanations for a wide range of behaviours including, gender, personality and abnormal development. As a result it had a great influence on psychology in the 20th century
—-> the psychodynamic approach has made to psychology the introduction of therapies and access to the unconscious. Dream analysis and free association are all used to find and treat unconscious conflicts. These have useful practical applications
—-> Freud provided evidence through the use of detailed case studies such as Little Hans which provided the existence of the Oedipus complex. He conducted observations and recorded them accurately, producing rich, detailed and externally valid data to support the psychodynamic assumptions
What are some limitations of the psychodynamic approach
—> Many of Freud’s ideas today are considered non-falsifiable theories. One cannot observe the relevant constructs directly to test them scientifically (idiographic)
—-> There are other available treatments to help disorders such as medications which use scientifically credible methods to treat those suffering from phobia’s etc. Dream analysis is more subjective and thus unreliable in comparison to objective lab conducted medicine
—-> Some may prefer quantitive data over case studies as it is more reliable and relevant to larger majorities. Quantitive data can be tested to see if it is accurate. Qualitative data is more subjective due to researcher bias (limited applications and generalisation)
what is the oedipus complex
-occurs during phallic stage of development
-young boy begins to desire his mother and wants her complete attention which means he sees his father as a rival
-son experiences castration anxiety
-evidence = little hans
What is the electra complex
-occurs during the phallic stage where a little girl desires her father and realizes that she doesn’t have a penis which leads to penis envy
-penis envy is then substituted as desire for a baby
-little girls blame mothers for castrated state
What is the little hans case study
-Hans developed fear of castration as his mother threatened to cut it off
-hans saw a horse collapse and die which caused his phobia
-hans wanted to cuddle with his mother but his father objected
-horses = large pensis like his father
-hans fantasized about have several children with his mother and that a plumber had come and replaced his penis with new/larger ones
-by 5 the phobia disappeared all together
What are some assumptions of the humanistic approach
-the scientific method is not appropriate to measure behaviour –> subjective and the scientific method is rigid/inflexible
-people should be viewed holistically
-we have free will over our behaviour. We do have constraints but ultimately we are in charge
-every individual is unique
What is free will
we can decide and choose our course of action. We should consider the subjective experience of an individual and understand that despite constraints, humans are active agents in making their own decisions (holistic advocate)
What is self actualization
everyone has an innate drive to achieve full potential
-Roger and Maslow believed that individuals self-actualise in their own way and behaviour is unique to them
-correlation between self-actualisation and a persons psychological health
What is focus
flow is a state where someone is completley caught up in a task so they are totally focused on it which increases personal growth
-if someone experiences a negative event, this will affect their self concept and prevent personal growth
What is maslow’s hierarchy of needs
in order to reach self actualisation (fufilled desire) one needs to fufil the lower levels of the pyramid
-physiological needs –> food, water, oxygen, sleep
-saftey needs –> security, protection, freedom from fear
-belonging and love –> friends, family, intimacy, love
-self esteem –> respect, comptence
-self actualisation –> realizing full potential
What is Roger’s focus on the self
we have 3 selves
-Self concept –> the self you feel you are. Affected by self-esteem and can be distorted
-the ideal self –> self you are aiming towards becoming
-the real self –> the person you actually are
What is congruence
ideal self and actual self are very similar
What is incongruence
imbalance between ideal and actual self
What is unconditonal positive regard
accepting someone no matter what
What are the conditions of worth
Conditions of worth –> conditional positive regard = requirements that they individual feels they need to be loved
What is the influence of counselling psychology
carl rogers developed client centered therapy
-key that therapists make clients feel accepted and unconditonal positive regard
-counselling psychology influenced CBT
What are the strengths of the humanisitc approach
-Not reductionist –> doesn’t objectively focus on one factor. Understands free will and advocates for holism (active agents who have ability to determine our development). Holistic approach
-Positive approach –> pushes self worth and achievement, through will to reach congruence and self actualization. Improve mental health and self esteem through client centered therapies
What are limitations of the humanistic approach
-limited evidence based application –> subjective and cannot be scientifically concluded unlike the behaviourist approach
-Culturally biased
assumptions of SLT
People learn through observation.
Learners can acquire new behavior and knowledge by merely observing a model.
Reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects on behavior and learning.
advantages and disadvantages of schemas
-Advantages –> help prevent overwhelmed by environmental stimuli. Easier to understand and interpret information
-Disadvantages –> can distort images leading to disorders like depression, these interpretations can be mistaken
Structuring a compare approaches 16 marker
either x2 PEEL on cognitive and then x2 on psychodynamic approach
or x4 paragraphs comparing the two rather than using it at a link at the end of a strength para for one approach
