Issues and Debates

Question 1

gender bias

Answer 1

-Gender bias can occur at any stage of the process from theory to conclusion

-Many have claimed that psychology is androcentric (males are taken as the norm from which theory is developed)

-Hare-Mustin and Maracek suggest alpha bias (exaggerate differences between men and women) and beta bias (minimise differences between men and women)

Question 2

alpha bias

Answer 2

exaggerate gender differences

Question 3

beta bias

Answer 3

ignore/minimize differences between males and females

Question 4

gender

Answer 4

Gender = psychological characteristics associated with being male and female

Question 5

bias

Answer 5

leaning in a particular direction, a systematic distortion in ones attitude and beliefs based on prejudice/pre-existing ideas

Question 6

androcentrism

Answer 6

Androcentrism = mental process of viewing the world from a male point of view

Question 7

issues of alpha and beta bias

Answer 7

Alpha bias = devalue one gender in comparison to others

Beta bias = ignores important differences –> leads to female behaviour as being misunderstood and seen as abnormal

Question 8

anatomy is destiny

Answer 8

“Anatomy is destiny” -> Freud:

-genuine psychological differences between men and women e,g young girls suffer from penis envy (Failed form of masculinity)

-gender determines main personality trait

-socially female and socially masculine

-Macccoby and Jacklin (1974) concluded that there were only 4 differences between boys and girls e.g girls have greater verbal ability

Question 9

androcentricism

Answer 9

Androcentrism = consequence of beta bias –> female behaviour becomes misunderstood and pathologised e.g Brescoll and Uhman reported that PMS stereotypes and trivalises expereince. PMS is a social construct which medicalises female emotions

Question 10

research that demonstrates alpha bias

Answer 10

Freud’s Penis Envy. Believed that all girls experience penis envy and that feminiety is a failed form of masculinity. This is an example of alpha bias because his research makes one gender appear more superior than the other gender, in this case bias against individuals. Freud assumed that there were real differences between males and females. This research has been widely discredited for its subjective nature.

Or Grossman (role of the father)

Question 11

example of beta bias in a research study/theory

Answer 11

Asch’s line study = only white male ppts

Question 12

analysis of a study

Answer 12

Analysis of a study = thematic analysis (e.g measure if sample is male orientated or not etc) Then the study can be coded for gender related issues

Secondary data = uses existing research to form conclusions

Question 13

sociobiological theory = alpha bias in relationship formation

Answer 13

Wilson (1975) –> human sexual attraction and behaviour through the priniciple of survival efficiency –> men make interest to tru impregnate women as much as possible to increase the chance of his genes being passed on to the next generation. Females ensure healthy survival of her offspring/egg. Sexual promiscuity in males is accpeted but critique in females as against their nature.

Question 14

strengths (gender bias)

Answer 14

-Improvements / more accountability in feminist psychology –> Worrel and Remer put forward a criteria that should be adhered in order to avoid gender bias in research e.g diversity within groups should be examined.

-Understanding of gender bias can help divert a cultural change within society –> many modern researchers are viewing gender bias as a crucial and critical aspect of research e.g Lambert et al includes reflections on how gender-related experiences influence readings. This reflectivity is important.

-Reverse alpha bias describes the development of theories that show a greater emphasis on women = Research by Cornwell et al (2013) showed that women are better at learning because they are more attentive, flexible and organised. Such research challenges the stereotype that in any gender differences the male position must be better and challenges people’s preconceptions.

Question 15

limitations (gender bias)

Answer 15

-Gender biased research can create various negative implications on one gender’s behaviours –> most psychological research and theory is said to favour males and create an androcentric view = creates msialeading assumptions about female behaviour. Women would be judged as inferior to men = denied opporunities in wider society. Causes detrimental problems to women in terms of emotional/tasks.

-Gender bias can have damaging consequences to women within the research process showcasing sexism (Denmark et al) –> — The laboratory experiment may also be an example of institutionalised sexism within psychology = Male researchers have the authority to deem women as “unreasonable, irrational and unable to complete complex tasks” (Nicolson, 1995). Eagly and Johnson noted that studies in real settings found women and men were judged as more similar in styles of leadership than in lab settings, hence having higher ecological validity.

Question 16

examples of beta bias

Answer 16

1. Early research conducted into the fight or flight response exclusively used male lab
   mice because they experience fewer hormonal fluctuations and so changes in
   adrenaline, due to environmental stressors, could be more reliably measured. However,
   results from these studies were then generalised to females, ignoring differences
   between the two sexes (e.g. speed and extent of the fight or flight response).
2. Kohlberg’s levels of moral reasoning theory was developed on the basis of studying
   groups of American males, who all answered questions based on moral dilemmas e.g.
   the Heinz dilemma. These results were then generalised to represent levels of moral
   reasoning for both men and women.

Question 17

universiality

Answer 17

The aim to develop theories that apply to all people, which may include
real differences. This describes any underlying characteristic of human behaviour which
can be applied to all individuals, regardless of their differences. Bias, lack of validity and
issues with reliability reduce the universality of psychological findings.

Question 18

psychology = westernised

Answer 18

Psychology is predominately a white, middle class, European/American subject (western cultures). It is conducted by this group of people but claims to explain all human nature.

-Some suggest that psychology is ethnocentric (researcher assumes that their own cultural norms are correct then compares other cultures in a negative way) –> also known as eurocentric

Question 19

emics and etics

Answer 19

-Emics and Etics are types of theoretical constructs.

-Emics constructs = specific to particular cultures so vary from place to place. Can easily be ignored/missed by a researcher from a different culture e.g behaviours arising from the death of a family member

-Etic constructs are aspects of human nature that are assumed universal but which may not be so e.g sadness with reaction to death -> imposed etic –> leads to bias

Question 20

cultural bias

Answer 20

Cultural bias –> refers to a tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the lens of ones own culture

Question 21

ethnocentric

Answer 21

Ethnocentric –> judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture. In its extreme form it’s the belief in the superiority of one’s own culture which may lead to prejudice and discrimination towards other countries

Question 22

emic

Answer 22

Emic (inside culture) —> research that fully studies one culture with no cross culture

Question 23

etic

Answer 23

Etic (outside culture) –> research that studies cross-cultural differences

Question 24

international studies of the strange situation

Answer 24

-Ainsworth = 100 American infants = 70% classified as secure with similar reports from Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg.

-However, in Bielfeld, Germany reported high rates of insecure-avoidant infants (52% -> Grossman et al).

-Zevalkink et al 1999 = high rates of resistant infants in Japan, Isreal

-there are also studies which recognise a fourth classification of attachment as disorganised (12% in middle class white children but 26% in south Africa).

Question 25

year 1 ethnocentric studies

Answer 25

strange situation, Asch, Zimbardo, Milgram, definitions of abnormalities

Question 26

why local populations differ

Answer 26

-For example, Isreaeli children rarely meet strangers and as a result have high rates of resistant behaviour but this may be due to fear than the nature of maternal bonds –> differences the way in infants percieve the strange situation (Sagi et al 1991)

-Same for German infants who have higher avoidant levels bc of the way parents approach parenting

Question 27

imposed etic

Answer 27

Imposed etic –> when one culture is applied inappropriately to another (theories are considered to be universal based on emic research in one individual culture)

-Eurocentric –> viewing the west as the centre of the word/superior to all other countries

-Cultural bias in Strange situation = impact reliability and validity

Question 28

WEIRD participants

Answer 28

-Western, educated, industrialised societies, rich, democratic (represents 12% of the world)

-cultural background of researchers may lead to cultural bias due to investigator effects

Question 29

cultural bias facts

Answer 29

-1992 64% of psychologers were America

-assume findings carried out from individualistic cultures around the world e.g Asch + Milgram’s study with US ppts was replicated in other parts of the world (Kilham + Mann)

-Strange situation = ethnocentrism + cultural bias –> key defining variable of attachment as reaction to separation from parent

-Imposed etic -> Ainsworth –> imposed her own cultural understanding on the rest of the world

Question 30

John Berry 1969

Answer 30

-John Berry (1969) –> drawn a distinction between etic and emic approaches in the study of human behaviour. Etic = behaviour outside a culture and attempts to describe those behaviours as universal. Emic = inside cultures + behaviours specific to that culture so Ainsworths is an example of imposed etic.

Question 31

evaluation - individualism + collectivism

Answer 31

-individualism vs collectivism –> individualistic = western, American, independent, personal freedom

Collectivistic = such as India and China = interdependence of a group. Takano and Osaka found that 14/15 studies that compared that USA and Japan not as much an issue as we thought (strength + limitation)

-cultural relativism vs universiality –>Berry’s concept of imposed etic is a good reminder to psychologists to ensure their work is culturally specific. However, it should not be assumed that all behaviour is culturally relative. Ekman said that all basic facial expressions are the same in human and animal world. (interactional sychrony = universal) A full understanding is required

-Unfamiliarity with research tradition –> Western cultures = increased risk of demand characteristics due to familiarity with aims and objectives. = adverse effect on validity of research situation

-Bias in research methods: Smith and Bond surveyed research in one European textbook on social psychology and found that 66% of the studies were American, 32% European and 2% from the rest of the world. A considerable amount of psychology is based on middle class academic young adults who are males. This suggests that there is almost an institutionalised cultural bias in psychology, as students would be learning about ‘universal’ behaviours that were demonstrated only in certain cultures.

-Strength –> challenge implicit assumptions –> cross-cultural research is that it may challenge our typical individualistic ways of thinking and viewing the world.

Question 32

describe one theory that demonstrates beta bias (4 marks)

Answer 32

-Beta bias is……

-Milgram’s obedience study showed high levels of this bc he used 40 male student ppts. 65% of ppts obeyed to the highest levels. From these results he generalised that people are more likely to obey authority figures, applying this to all including females even though there werent any in his sample population. This shows beta bias as he took the results gained from his study of males and applied them to females without considering gender differences in obedience.

Question 33

example of cultural relativism –> Cultural relativism is the view that ethical and social standards reflect the cultural context from which they are derived. Cultural relativists uphold that cultures differ fundamentally from one another, and so do the moral frameworks that structure relations within different societies

Answer 33

Milgram’s study into obedience was originally conducted using 40 male American participants, but then also replicated using Spanish students (Miranda et al. found over 90% obedience rates in Spanish students) and Australian students (where only 16% of female participants continued to the highest voltage setting, as shown by Kilham and Mann). This suggests that Milgram’s original results were specifically bound to American cultures.

Question 34

alpha + beta bias in cultural research

Answer 34

Alpha bias — Cultural relativism can lead to an alpha bias, where the assumption of real differences lead psychologists to overlook universals.

Beta bias — Cultural relativism is often discussed in the context of defining mental disorder. Behaviours that are statistically infrequent in one culture may be more frequent in another, i.e. schizophrenia is claiming to hear voices but this experience is more common in African cultures, where hearing voices is a sign of spirituality and so individuals are more likely to openly report these experiences to their psychiatrist. By assuming the same rules universally we may diagnose some people as mentally ill but relative to the culture they may not be

Question 35

free will

Answer 35

human beings are self-determining and free to choose our own thoughts and actions. Free from coercion and moral/social restraints. However, doesn’t defy the impact of biological and environmental forces

Question 36

determinism

Answer 36

-Determinism –> all behaviour is influenced by external forces (upbringing + learning) and internal forces (genes, chemicals etc)

Question 37

hard determinism

Answer 37

(fatalism) –> all human behaviour has a cuased and it should be possible to identify these causes. Compatible with aims of science –> assumes everything we think/do is dictated by forces we cannot control.

Question 38

soft determinism

Answer 38

important feature of cognitive approach. While acknowledging that all human action has a cause, soft determinism believe there is room movement as we can choose certain behaviours.

Question 39

chitling test

Answer 39

-designed by adrian dove (1968), a black sociologist
-developed IQ test using language that was common in the ghettos in America at the time to show that American children are not all speaking same language, therefore traditional IQ tests are bias

-children from ghetto areas scored higher

Question 40

16 mark structure

Answer 40

1) definitions
2) alpha bias study
3) beta bias study
4) 4 evaluation paragraphs

Question 41

determinism –> free will approaches

Answer 41

Hard determinism:

-behaviourist approach

-biological approach

-psychodynamic approach

Soft determinism:

-Social learning theory

-cognitive

Free will:

-humantistic

Question 42

discuss the free will and determinism debate (16 marks)

Answer 42

AO1 –> free will, determinism, hard vs soft determinism, types of determinism, free will = humanistic, deterministic = genes + neurotrasnmitters in OCD

AO3 –> for and against for each free will and determinism (4 paragraphs in total)

Question 43

importance of scientific research

Answer 43

scientific research is based on the belief that all
events have a cause. An independent variable is manipulated to have an effect on the
dependent variable. Through repeating the research under controlled conditions (e.g.
using a laboratory experiment) and performing statistical tests, a ‘cause and effect’
relationship can be established between two variables. This increases the scientific
credibility of Psychology, through enabling the prediction and control of behaviour.

Question 44

free will examples

Answer 44

The Humanistic Approach — Humanistic psychologists argue that self-determinism is a
necessary part of human behaviour. Rogers (1959) claimed that as long as an individual
remains controlled by other people or other things they cannot take responsibility for their
own behaviour and therefore cannot change it. Only when an individual takes self
responsibility is personal growth or ‘self-actualisation’ possible. By taking such a stance,
humanism has been praised as a positive approach, essentially seeing people as good and
free to ‘better themselves’.
Moral responsibility — The basis is that an individual is in charge of their own actions. The
law states that children and those who are mentally ill do not have this responsibility but
other than this, there is an assumption that normal adult behaviour is self determined

Question 45

when writing evaluations for issues and debates never say a strength is…instead word it like a debate e.g On the other hand

Question 46

biological determinism

Answer 46

-focuses on the argument that genes determine our dispositions, behaviours and responses. All human behaviour is innate and determined by genes e.g Hill et al found the IGF2r gene is implicated in intelligence e.g OCD and SERT gene

Question 47

environmental determinism

Answer 47

-The view that behaviour is determined or caused by forces outside the individual. Our behaviour is caused by previous experiences learned through classical and operant conditioning.

Cause of social and external environments

g Skinners rats –> free will is an illusion

Question 48

psychic determinism

Answer 48

-Focuses on learned and unconscious behaviour guiding out actions. All mental processes are not spontaneous but are determined by the unconscious e.g Freud’s psychosexual stages, defence mechanisms, Freudian slips e.g repression

Question 49

casual explanations

Answer 49

Casual explanation –> basic principle of science that every event in the universe has a cause and what causes this change. Knowledge of causes are important as they allow scientists to predict and control events. For example, in the behaviourist approach positive reinforcement causes behaviour to be repeated again

Question 50

For free will

Answer 50

Free will has good face validity — In everyday scenarios, we appear to be making our own decisions. Therefore, the idea of free will has good face validity because we appear to have free will in our day to day lives

-Free will has high internal validity — Robert et al. found that adolescents with an internal locus of control (an individual’s idea of what controls events in their lives) are less likely to develop depression and are more likely to have better mental health, compared to those with an external locus of control. These differences in LOC and mental health states supports the idea that free will can be used to help us determine what controls our life events, and so we make such conscious decisions.

Question 51

against free will

Answer 51

Illusion of free will — A person may choose to do something but these choices are determined by previous reinforcement contingencies, as suggested by the behaviourist approach. This is a hard deterministic stance.

-Challenge to the idea of free will — Benjamin Libet et al (1983) recorded activity in motor areas of the brain before the person had a conscious awareness to move their finger. Chun Soon et al (2008) found activity in the prefrontal cortex up to 10 seconds before a person was aware of their decision to act. This suggests that the motor activity preceding movement occurred before the conscious decision was made, and so implies that all behaviour is pre-determined by up to 10 seconds.

Question 52

for determinism

Answer 52

Behaviourist approach

-The entire physical universe operates on the deterministic principle. The universe is full of cause and effect relationships. So the deterministic view is scientific as we can use past events in similar situations to predict future behaviours.

Question 53

against determinism

Answer 53

100% genetic determinism is unlikely to be found for any behaviour. = Studies that compare monozygotic twins have found 80% similarity for intelligence and 40% for depression. This suggests that genes do not entirely determine behaviour and supports an interactionist standpoint. The fact that concordance rates for MZ twins are often higher than for siblings, despite both sharing 50% of genes, may be due to MZ twins being more likely to share the same environment.

-Determinism simplifies human behaviour. = This may be appropriate for non-humans but human behaviour is less rigid and influenced by many factors i.e. cognitive factors which can override biological impulses. For example, aggression cannot be simplified to the action of the endocrine system and adrenaline. There are cognitive factors and accompanying emotions which are just as, or more important, than the biological aspects.

-practical applications in the court of law –> offenders are held morally accountable for their actions = suggesting they are active agents over their behaviour

Question 54

types of determinism

Answer 54

-environmental
-psychic
-biological

Question 55

types of reductionism

Answer 55

-environmental
-biological

Question 56

levels of explanations

Answer 56

Highest level — Cultural and social explanations of behaviour e.g. depression being explained by a withdrawal from social activities, low energy levels and insomnia, which is
viewed as odd by society.

Middle level — Psychological explanations of behaviour e.g. depression being explained by
Beck’s Cognitive Theory (the product of the cognitive triad of automatic negative
thoughts, faulty information processing and negative self-schemas) and Ellis’ ABC model (an activating event produces an irrational belief which leads to an emotional or
behavioural consequence).

Lower level — Biological explanations of behaviour e.g. depression being explained by the
action of candidate genes (e.g. 5HT1-D beta controlling the efficiency of synaptic
serotonin transport) and neural factors (e.g. abnormal functioning of the left
parahippocampal gyrus and the lateral frontal lobes).

Question 57

reductionism

Answer 57

-Reductionism = formulating explanations by breaking down theories into more fundamental units and processes. Relations between parts. E.g biological approach to OCD (neurochemical viewpoint etc)

-An advantage of reductionism is that it promotes the cooperation between disciplines. However, much of human behaviour cannot be explained solely by one discipline e.g biological/neural etc. Tends not the work when explaining theories like attachment.

Question 58

holism

Answer 58

-Holism = all properties of a given system (biological, chemical, social) cannot be determined or explained by the sum of its component parts alone. View system as a whole. (study as an individualistic system rather than consituent parts) e.g humanistic approach

Question 59

holistic topics in psychology

Answer 59

-self actualisation

-treatments in psychology

-social influence –> not only 1 factor affecting conformity

-humanistic approach = all aspects of the individual

-psychoanalysis = interaction of different factors

Question 60

reductionist topics in psychology

Answer 60

-Biological approach –> treatable with drugs + imbalance of chemicals

-biological explanations of OCD

-classical conditioning

-behaviourist approach (skinner)

-Wundts introspection = break conscious experiences into parts (structuralism)

Question 61

biological reductionism

Answer 61

we are biological organisms made up of physiological structures and processes thus all behaviour is at some point biological so can be explained through neurochemical/evolutionary etc factors e.g development of psychoactive drugs have increased understanding of neural processes / OCD and serotonin

Question 62

environmental reductionism

Answer 62

Behaviourist approach is built on environmental reductionism. Only study observable behaviour and in doing so break complex learning into a simple stimulus-response idea measured within a lab. Key unit of analysis occurs at the physical level not cognitive. E.g systematic desensitzation to treat phobias (built on counter-conditioning)

Question 63

argument for reductionism

Answer 63

-Reductionist approaches forms the basis of most psychological research; in order to create operationalised variables it is necessary to break target behaviours into consituent parts (behavioural categories).

-Behaviourist approach = explains how complex learning can be broken down into a simple stimulus-response action. = greater credibility.

• Consistent with the scientific approach — Scientific psychology aims to be able to predict and control behaviour. Therefore, reductionism is consistent with the aims of science because it allows for this. Smaller, constituent parts of behaviour are easily measured and manipulated under strict laboratory conditions, and so ‘cause and effect’ relationships between variables can be reliably established. Hence, reductionism raises the scientific credibility of psychology.

-Practical application in the development of drug therapy — A reductionist approach towards researching and explaining mental disorders has led to the development of powerful and effective drug therapies e.g. SSRIs to treat depression, based on the view that a deficiency in serotonin causes depression (biological reductionism). This also reduces need for institutionalisation, where sufferers can continue with their day to day lives through the use of non-invasive treatment and without regular hospital visits. Therefore, reductionist approaches have had a positive impact on people’s lives.

Question 64

argument against reductionism

Answer 64

-Accused of oversimplifying complex ideas = leads to loss of validity. Explanations that operate from a biological/genetic perspective rarely touch on social ideas from which certain behaviours can also stem.

-Ignores the complexity of behaviour — Reductionist explanations may lead to a loss of validity because they ignore the social context where behaviour occurs, which often gives behaviour its meaning. For example, from a reductionist viewpoint, the act of speaking would be the same across all scenarios due to each individual having the same biological mechanism for this. However, such a view ignores the social context of this speaking, such as with the aim of alerting someone, voicing an opinion etc.

Question 65

argument for holism

Answer 65

-often there are aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group context and cannot be undertsood from an indivdual group. E.g conformity to social roles in zimbardo’s experiment. Interaction between the person and group of people was important.

-interactionist approach = alternative to reductionism = different levels of an explanation can combine and interact. E.g diathesis stress model = multidisciplinary holistic approach

-Provides a more complete picture: Some examples of behaviour can only be understood at the holistic level, such as the conformity and deindividuation of Zimbardo’s prisoners and guards in his Stanford Prison Experiment. Research into resisting conformity, such as Gamson’s work into the role of social support in groups, also makes use of holistic explanations by looking at the interactions within and between groups. Therefore, holistic explanations may provide a more ‘complete’ picture of behaviour.

Question 66

argument against holism

Answer 66

-Tend not to experience rigorous scientific testing and can become vague and speculative. E.g humanistic psychology is critised for its lack of empirical testing.

-However it is difficult to investigate the many differing types and levels of explanations: This poses a practical problem for researchers who attempt to combine many higher-level explanations, because it becomes difficult to identify which explanation is most influential and therefore which explanation it would be most useful to base treatment upon. Therefore, holistic explanations may not lead to the development of effective treatments for mental health disorders.

Question 67

biological vs environmental reductionism

Answer 67

both = reduce a complex phenomena to one explanation but from opposite sides of the spectrum

Question 68

essay structure

Answer 68

AO1
support = one argument
support = other argument
interactionist/counterargument
unsupport = one argument
unsupport = other argument

Question 69

history of nature vs nurture debate

Answer 69

-descartes = behaviour as result of hereditary
-John Locke = blank slate
-heritability co-efficient = 0 to 1.0

nuture = Richard lenner= different levels of the environment

Question 70

Lerner

Answer 70

identified different ‘levels’ of the environment, which ranged from pre-natal
experiences (e.g. the mother’s physiological and psychological state during preganancy) to
post-natal experiences (e.g. the socio-historical context within which the child grew up
in). The view that the mind is a ‘blank slate upon which experience writes upon’ is typical
of an empiricist/behaviourist approach e.g. John Locke.

Question 71

hereditary

Answer 71

— The process by which traits are passed from parents to their offspring, usually
referring to genetic inheritance. The heritability coefficient can be used to quantify the
extent to which a characteristic has a genetic basis. For example, intelligence appears to
have a heritability coefficient of 0.5 (Plomin et al, 1994) and so the influences of nature
and nurture are equal.

Question 72

genetic explanations

Answer 72

The more closely related two individuals are, the more likely that
they will develop the same behaviours. The concordance rate for a mental disorder such
as schizophrenia is 40% for MZ twins and 7% for DZ twins. This illustrates how nature plays
a part in contribution to the disorder. However, concordance rates for MZ twins are not
100%, despite being genetically identical. This suggests that nurture and the environment
also plays a significant role in development.

Question 73

evolutionary explanations

Answer 73

These are based on the principle that a behaviour which
promotes survival will be naturally selected e.g. running away from fire or avoiding deep
water. This is because such behaviours are adaptive, so the individual is more likely to
survive to adulthood and reproduce. Bowlby proposed that attachment was adaptive as it
meant an infant was more likely to be protected due to displaying social releasers (innate,
‘cute’ behaviours which activates the adult mammalian attachment system) and features
of infant-caregiver interactions (such as interactional synchrony and reciprocity). As such,
the infant would be more likely to survive and reproduce as an adult.

Question 74

influence of nuture

Answer 74

Behaviourists assume that all behaviour can be explained in terms of
experience alone. Skinner used the concepts of classical and operant conditioning to
explain learning and suggests that attachment could be explained in terms of classical
conditioning where the food reduces the discomfort of hunger (negative reinforcement)
and is therefore rewarding.
Social learning theory — Bandura proposed that behaviour is acquired indirectly through
operant and classical conditioning but also by directly through vicarious reinforcement. He
acknowledged that biology had a role to play e.g. the urge to act aggressively could be
biological but the way a person learns to express anger is through environmental
influences (such as through observing and imitating the methods of expression of anger
displayed by the identified role models).
Other explanations — The double blind theory of schizophrenia (Bateson et al, 1956)
suggests that schizophrenia develops in children who frequently receive contradictory
messages from parents and these conflicting messages prevents the child from developing
an internal consistent construction of reality. This is because when the child behaves
incorrectly, they are punished by a withdrawal of love from their parents, leading them to
believe that the world is dangerous (reflected in paranoid delusions) and confusing
(reflected in disorganized thinking).

Question 75

16 mark essay structure

Answer 75

-include counterargument

-in AO1 use examples from other topics

-try find middle ground for final paragraph e.g interactionist approach

Ao1 –> The holism vs reductionism debate investigates….Psychologists believe….There are several types of reductionism…Biological reductionism….For example…Environmental reductionism….For example…The holistic approach believes in…….

Ao3 –> Support for the holistic approach….link to research or real life example…therefore we can establish….

Whereas, support for reductionism…..this led to….However….(counter argument)

Ultimately, many psychologists would suggest and interactionist approach…..This shows how combining…..

Question 76

Tarrier

Answer 76

group of patients with schizophrenia were compared to control group being treated with medication only. Results showed combination of two therapies = less symptoms

Question 77

nature

Answer 77

biological determinism
-inheritance

-biological

-genetics

-innate

-hereditary

Question 78

nuture

Answer 78

environmental determinism
-culture

-acquired

-learned

-social

Question 79

nature and nurture in terms of attachment

Answer 79

Nature –> attachment = bowlby’s montropy = social releasers = innate caused by evolution

Nuture –> anisworth, maternal deprivation, cupboard love

Question 80

relative importance of heredity and the environment

Answer 80

-interactionist approach = attachment patterns and how the child’s innate social releaser react to parent = mix of nature and nurture

-diathesis stress model = genetic and environmental stressors

-epigenetics = change in genetic activity without changing the genetic code e.g diet leaves “marks” on our DNA e.g Dias and Ressler gave male lab mice electric shocks everytime they were exposed to a chemcical (acetophenephone). The rats and their children feared its smell.

Question 81

for nature

Answer 81

-Research by Gottesman and Shield’s study into the genetic basis of schizophrenia. Compared 2 groups; child with adoptive parents and child with biological parents then compared concordance rate of schizophrenia between MZ and DZ twins. Higher incidence of schizophrenia in adopted children with a schizophrenic biological parent and concordance rate for MZ twins was 58%.

-+ Nurture affects nature — Maguire et al study of london taxi drivers showed that the region of their brains with spatial memory was bigger than in controls, this is because the hippocampi had responded this way. Maguire et al. studied the brains of London taxi drivers and found a larger grey matter volume in the mid-posterior hippocampus, an area of the brain associated with spatial awareness (skills needed for taxi drivers when they are learning and completing ‘The Knowledge’ exam). There was a positive correlation between increasingly pronounced changes and an increasing length of time that individuals had been taxi drivers. This demonstrates the interactionist nature of empiricism and nativism, and gives further reason as to why the influences of the two cannot be separated.

-Epigenetics — Refers to the material in each cell that acts like a switch to turn genes on or off e.g. DNA methylation and histone tail modification. Life experiences control these switches and these switches are passed on when the DNA is replicated semiconservatively. This is why MZ twins may differ in weight even though they were given the same diets, due to differences in upbringing/experiences causing differences in the individual expression of genes. For example, Caspi et al (2002) assessed antisocial behaviour in 1000 participants between birth and the age of 26. The researchers found that 12% of men with less MAOA gene expression had experienced maltreatment when they were babies but were responsible for 44% of crimes. This brings a third element into the nature-nurture debate: the experiences of previous generations!

Question 82

against nature

Answer 82

-phenotype and genotype = not necessarily present = concordance rates are never 100%

-Perhaps psychologists could adopt an interactionist approach –> shared vs unshared environment = manifest difference things. Tarrier = group of patients with schizophrenia were compared to control group being treated with medication only. Results showed combination of two therapies = less symptoms

Question 83

for nurture

Answer 83

-Little Albert’s study into phobia’s and association with counter conditioning. Developed specific phobia due to environmental experience. Adds credibility to theory = stimulus-response action

-behaviour shaping used by behaviourists –> practical application in therapy = desirable behaviours are selectively reinforced

Question 84

against nurture

Answer 84

–+ Diathesis-Stress Model — A diathesis is a biological vulnerability. However not everyone with these ‘candidate’ genes will develop a disorder. The expression of the gene depends on experience in the form of a stressor which triggers the condition (a diathesis). This has been illustrated by Tienari et al (20040 who studied 145 Finnish adoptees whose mothers had schizophrenia and were then matched with a sample of 158 adoptees without this www.pmt.education genetic risk. The two groups were independently assessed after 12 years and of the total 303, 14 developed schizophrenia and 11 of these were from the high risk group. Children without a genetic risk but raised in a family climate characterised by tension and a lack of empathy did not develop SZ. However, children with a genetic risk and who experienced the same family climate did go on to develop SZ. This illustrates how being raised in a “healthy adoptive family” has a protective effect.

Question 85

nomothetic

Answer 85

adopt this approach when psychologists are mainly concerned with studying what we share with others. That is to say in establishing laws of generalizations. Quantitive data and scientific methods, study human behaviour from the development of general principles and universal laws.

Question 86

idiographic

Answer 86

psychologists are interested in this approach bc they want to study individual closes and what makes us unique. Rejects the scientific method = not generalisable, qualitative data. Behaviour must be understood in terms of subjective experience (phenomentology)

Question 87

3 general laws

Answer 87

3 kinds of general law –> classification (DSM), establishing principles (conformity and obedience), establishing dimensions (IQ) –> statistical analysis of groups and predictions

Question 88

idiographic approaches

Answer 88

Phineas Gage, Little Hans, clive wearing and patient HM, humanistic –> The humanistic approach adopts a holistic and ‘phenomenological’ approach to research, which focuses on the experience of the individual. Such research methods were then used to develop the client-centred approach to therapy and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Question 89

Nomothetic approaches

Answer 89

Pavlovs dog, Milgram, . The cognitive approach uses objective methods of measuring brain activity, such as EEG and PET scans. This allows cognitive psychologists to draw inferences about the workings of mental processes. 3. The biological approach also makes use of brain scans to make inferences about localisation of brain function. For example, the use of PET scans by Tulving et al. helped to establish that semantic memories were recalled from the left prefrontal cortex, whilst episodic memories were recalled from the right prefrontal cortex.

Question 90

milgram

Answer 90

Milgram’s obedience study is a nomothetic approach –> supports environmental determinism caused by situational variables (location, proximity, uniform), high internal validity, real life applications but lacks ecological validity

Question 91

little hans

Answer 91

Freud interpreted the boys behaviour and reported dreams as a problem in the phallic psychosexual stage, Oedipus complex + castration anxiety. Unique to himself = idiographic.

Limitation = generalising psychosexual stages is subjective that not all people experience

Strength = highly descriptive –> supports psychic determinism

Question 92

for idiographic

Answer 92

-in depth qualitative methods –> For example, the case studies conducted on HM and Clive Wearing demonstrated that different types of longterm memory are located in different areas of the brain. This led to the further research of localisation and memory

-complete and global account of the individual –> patient HM = important understanding of normal and abnormal functioning

Question 93

against idiographic

Answer 93

-cannot generalise to wider populations = cannot be made without further examination

-methods are flexible and unstandardised so replication, prediction and control of behaviour is difficult

-However it offers a narrow and restrictived perspective = Theories developed from case studies and (unstructured) interviews may struggle to be generalised beyond the individual, thus reducing the ecological validity of these findings. For example, the humanism widely uses the idiographic approach but is still viewed by many as a set of rather loose, abstract concepts, due to a lack of empirical evidence as well as being specific to the individual. Generalisations cannot be made without further examples to act as a baseline comparison. This means that the idiographic approach does not improve the scientific credibility of psychology.

— The research methods used, such as case studies and unstructured interviews, lack scientific rigour = These methods rely heavily on individual and subjective interpretation. Therefore, conclusions are open to researcher bias, which reduces the reliability of the findings and the extent to which they can be generalised to other individuals. This translates to a lack of validity when developing theories and assumptions based upon the idiographic approach.

Question 94

for nomothetic

Answer 94

-empirical and reliable as it is stanzardised e.g IQ testing = greater scientific credibility

-+ Highly scientific methods = The nomothetic approach makes use of research methods which objectively produce reliable data through adopting standardised conditions and a high level of control of extraneous and confounding variables. Constituent parts of the target behaviour can be reliably measured through the use of operationalised behavioural categories, thus increasing the internal validity of the findings. Since the findings will not be influenced by researcher bias, the findings have greater scientific creditability due to their method of collection.

+ Enables unifying laws and general principles to be reliably established = The focus on objectively collecting reliable data has led to certain ‘norms’ or standards of behaviour to be established, such as the average IQ score being 100. Such norms act as a good baseline comparison for intellectual abilities and mental disorders.

Question 95

against nomothetic

Answer 95

-approaches have been accused to losing the whole person e.g 1% of developing schizophrenia in the lifetime = little for what life is like for those experiencing disorder

-reductionist and deterministic

Question 96

interactionist –> nomothetic and idiographic

Answer 96

-should be seen as complimentary approaches rather than conflicting. For example, Bowlby’s explanation took a nomotherical approach but follow up research as idiographic and contrasted with his results

-Milton and Davis (1996) suggest that research should start with a nomothetic approach and once general laws have been produced the focus should switch to an idiographic approach to develop our understanding and theories.Therefore, either approach can be used depending on the aims and nature of the research.

Question 97

6 ethical guidelines

Answer 97

-Ethical guidelines –> informed consent, deception, confidentiality, debriefing, withdrawal, protection

Question 98

why do ethical guidelines arise

Answer 98

Ethical issues arise when there is a conflict between psychology’s need to gain valid and valuable research whilst also preserving the dignity of ppts

Question 99

example of studies that broke ethical guidelines

Answer 99

Example of studies that broke ethical guidelines –> Zimbardo’s prison study, Milgram’s obedience study, Harlow’s monkey study

Issues of breaking ethical guidelines = research is non-replicable, harm ppts

Question 100

ethics

Answer 100

Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research. We have a moral responsibility to protect research participants from harm. However, psycholgists need to remember that they have a duty to respect the rights and dignity of research participants

Question 101

ethical implications

Answer 101

Ethical implications –> the impact that psychological research may have in terms of the rights of other people especially ppts. This includes at a societal level/influencing public policy etc –> barriers in research that reduce validity and falsifiability

Question 102

ethics of socially sensitive research

Answer 102

The ethics of social sensitive research -> psycholgists sometimes carry out research which can have significant implications both for the ppts and the wider community

Question 103

ethical guidelines, issues and implications

Answer 103

Ethical guidelines –> protect ppts –> advice for psycholgists to follow as they do research/provide treatments –> how to safely and reponsibly conduct a study

Ethical issues –> arise when the research being conducted may impose a form of physical or psychological harm on the participants or general population

Ethical implications –> the impact that psychological research may have in terms of the rights of other people especially ppts

Question 104

socially sensitive research

Answer 104

Socially sensitive research (controversial) –> studies in which there are potential consequences of implications, either direct for ppts in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research. Implications = discrimination, bias, prejudice etc

Question 105

examples of socially sensitive research

Answer 105

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation is a socially sensitive study as it places emphasis on the role of the mother as the most important caregiver. Self fufilling propehcy and make male fathers feel inadequate.

Other socially sensitive research = Milgram, Freud, Grossman, Loftus and Palmer, sperry’s split brain research

Question 106

Sieber and Stanley (1988) = 4 concerns with the research of socially sensitive topics:

Answer 106

The research question –> The research must consider their research question carefully. Asking questions like “are there racial differences in IQ” damaging to members of a particular group

The methodology used –> The researcher needs to consider the treatment of the ppts and their right to confidentiality/anonymity e.g if a person admits to a crime should it remain confidential

The institutional context –> The researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who is running the research -> how they intend to use the findings

The interpretation and application of findings –> Finally, the researcher needs to consider how their findings must be interpreted and applied in the real world

Question 107

strengths of socially sensitive research

Answer 107

-Scarr argues that studies of under-represented groups and issues may promote greater understanding to help reduce prejudge and encourage acceptance e.g research into the unreliability of EWT has reduced risk of issues in legal system

• Social Control = Socially sensitive research has historically been used as ‘scientific justification’ for discriminatory practices. For example, during the 1920s and 1930s, some states in the USA issues voluntary sterilization programmes for citizens who were deemed as ‘unfit to breed’. These included the mentally ill, the disabled and drug addicts. This was based upon William Shockley’s Voluntary Sterilisation Bonus Plan, which encouraged low-IQ individuals to undergo sterilization. Such a programme was based upon his fraudulent and incorrect research where “preliminary research suggested that an increase of 1% in Caucasian ancestry raises Negro IQ an average of one point for low IQ populations, with diminishing returns approaching 100 IQ”. Therefore, socially sensitive research can be and has been used for malicious and unjust ends.

-+ Cost-benefit analysis = When deciding whether certain research projects should be allowed to continue, ethics committees undergo a cost-benefit analysis, where the benefit of the research (such as contribution to the existing field of knowledge) is compared to the costs of breaching ethical guidelines. However, some ethical implications of socially sensitive research may be particularly difficult to predict, such as the impact of such research on legislation and the way in which certain groups of people are perceived by the public.

Question 108

limitations of socially sensitive research

Answer 108

-— Research could be potentially misused so psychologists should take responsibility for the presentation of findings = For example, Packard proposed the idea of ‘subliminal messaging’, where he found that when pictures of Coca Cola and popcorn were projected onto cinema screens for split seconds, so that audience members could not see it, their sales increased significantly. However, it was discovered that Packard had completely made up his results! Although the implications in this case were not serious, such an example shows the power of socially sensitive research and how it can be misused.

-cyril Burt (11+ exams)

-Sieber and Stanley warn that the way questions are phrased may influence the way in which findings are interpreted (Cross cultural research may be blighted by ethnocentrisim). Researchers must approach their studies with an open mind to avoid misrepresenting minority groups

Question 109

how should researchers mitigate against a socially sensitive issue (issue then solution)

Answer 109

-Researchers should be aware of the implications of their research into anti-social behaviour and linking this to “social background”. This could have a negative impact for the children in the sample and could lead to discrimination if it is found that social behaviour is more likely in people from a specific social background. They should consider the wording of the question.

-When dealing with the results researchers should take adequate steps to ensure confidentialty and anonyminity….this could lead to a self-fuflling prophecy

Question 110

two ways psychologists could avoid gender bias in their research

Answer 110

-use both male and female ppts
-use both male and female researchers
-do not exaggerate differences between males and females when they are not present (alpha bias)

Question 111

When she looks at the results in Table 1, the teacher says, “I can see there is a
difference in behaviour between the two conditions, but is the difference significant at the
0.05 level of significance?”

What do the students need to do with the data in Table 1 so that they can answer their
teacher’s question? Explain your answer.

Answer 111

they would need to use a Chi-squared test/statistical test/inferential test with the data
* in this case there is categorical/nominal data and an independent design
* the result of the test (the observed/calculated value) would be compared to the critical table value
at the 0.05 level
* if there is a less than 5% probability that the difference is due to chance, then the students could
say the difference is significant
* then they can accept their research hypothesis (reject the null)

Question 112

define cultural relativism

Answer 112

The idea that a behaviour can only be properly understood/only has meaning/only makes sense in the
context of the norms and values of the society or culture in which it occurs.

Question 113

how to reduce cultural bias

Answer 113

-cross-cultural research rather than sole cutlure
-do not assume universal standards across different cultures

Question 114

paradigam shift

Answer 114

• a paradigm is a set of shared assumptions/beliefs about how behaviour/thought is studied/explained
  eg a focus on causal explanations of behaviour
• a shift occurs where members of a scientific community change from one established way of
  explaining/studying a behaviour/thought to a new way, due to new/contradictory evidence eg shifting
  focus from cause to free will.
• this shift leads to a ‘scientific revolution’ eg the cognitive revolution in the 1970s and the current
  emphasis on cognitive neuroscience.