Gender

Question 1

introduction

Answer 1

-Biological sex is not necessarily to their gender

-Gender identity is acquired through apperance/behaviour

-overtime views on the fluidity of gender have become more accepting e.g gender dysphoria is no longer considered a disorder -gender construction through society

Question 2

sex vs gender

Answer 2

Psychologists refer to sex and gender as 2 distinct, separate concepts

Sex is innate and the result of nature (biologically determined) whilst gender is learned through nurture (environmentally determined)

-Gender is a social construct rather than biological fact.

Question 3

gender dysphoria

Answer 3

Gender dysphoria –> biological sex doesn’t match the way they feel inside. May choose to have gender reassignment surgery to bring their sexual identity in line with their gender identity

Question 4

sex

Answer 4

Sex –> the biological differences between males and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy

Question 5

gender

Answer 5

Gender –> the psychological and cultural differences between males and females including attitudes, behaviours and social roles. The persons psychosocial status.

Question 6

masculine vs feminine

Answer 6

Masculine –> having qualities or an appearance traditionally associated with men or boys

Feminine –> having qualities or an appearance traditionally associated with women or girlsa

Question 7

androgynous

Answer 7

Androgynous –> partially male and partially female (balance) Andro = men Gyny = female

Question 8

approaches assumptions

Answer 8

Biological assumptions –> all behaviour is driven from our genes/biological factors

Psychodynamic assumptions –> all behaviour is driven from our unconscious mind and experiences we have in our childhood

Behaviourist approach –> -gender construction through society

Question 9

sex-role stereotypes

Answer 9

Sex role stereotypes –> a set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for males and females in a given society

e.g men = strong/athletic etc

Women = maternal/long hair etc

-expectations are transmitted throughout society and are reinforced by peers, media etc

-may lead to sexist assumptions being formed

-Smith and Lloyd = support social learning theory of gender

Question 10

scientific support for sex-role seterotypes

Answer 10

-Madhura Iglauer et al (2014) –> scanned the brain of 949 young men and women –> MRI to map connections between different parts of the brain

-Womens brain = far better connections between left and right sides of the brain while male brains display more intense activity especially the cerebellum which controls motor skills as the female brain is more narrowed to cope with several tasks at once

Case study (Batista boys) –> McGinley et al–> studied a unique family who lived in the Dominican republic –> 4 girls who changes into males –> each of children’s vaginas turned into testicles when turned over. They contained male chromosomes (XY) but their genetalia was female.

Germany = first European country to introduce a third gender category (X) on birth certificates

Question 11

androgyny definitions

Answer 11

-Definition in everyday language –> the appearance of someone who cannot be clearly defined as male or female

-Definition in psychology –> displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics in ones personality

Question 12

Bem sex role inventory (1974) -> measuring androgyny

Answer 12

-The first systematic attempt to measure androgyny using a rating scale of 60 traits (20 masculine, 20 feminine and 20 neutral) to produce scores across 2 dimensions (masculinity-femininety and androynous-undifferenitated) –> questionnarire + self report

-high androgyny = associated with psychological well-being –> better equipped to adapt to a range of situations

-Respondents are required to rate themseleves on a seven-point rating scale for each item 1= never true, 7 = always true. Scores are then classified on the basis of the 2 dimensions

High masculine + low feminine = masculine

High feminine + low masculine = feminine

Low mas + low fem = undifferentiated

High masc + high fem = androgynous

e.g masculine behaviours = dominant/forceful

Feminine behaviours = affectionate / warm

Neutral behaviours = jealous/friendly

Question 13

strengths of research into androgyny

Answer 13

-Scale/questionnaire appears valid and reliable –> asked 50 male and 50 females to rate 200 traits in terms of how desirable they were for men and women. The highest scorers became part of the BSRI. This was then piloted with 1000 ppts and the results corresponded with the ppts own description of gender identity. Follow up study involved fewer ppts which revealed similar results suggesting test-retest reliability.

-Association between androgyny and psychological wellbeing –> Bem placed great emphasis on the fact that androgynous individuals are more psychologically healthy as they are more flexible + adaptable. However, this has been challenged (Adams and Sherer) argued that those who express more masculine traits are better adjusted –> may not have taken adequate account for social and cultural factors

Question 14

limitations of research into androgyny

Answer 14

-Oversimplifies a complex concept –> Suggested that gender identity is too complex to be reduced to a single score. E.g PAQ replaces Bem with one that measures expression and instrumentality. Golombok and Fivush claimed that gender identity is much more a global concept than suggested by Bem’s scale. Broader issues should be considered e.g identity/personality

–Association between androgyny and psychological wellbeing –> Bem placed great emphasis on the fact that androgynous individuals are more psychologically healthy as they are more flexible + adaptable. However, this has been challenged (Adams and Sherer) argued that those who express more masculine traits are better adjusted –> may not have taken adequate account for social and cultural factors

-Cultural and historical bias –> Questionnaire lacks temporal validity = made of stereotypical categories of masculinity and feminity which may now be outdated.

-Questionnaire = social desirability bias + lacks qualittative data

Question 15

male development

Answer 15

-SRY gene produces a protein (testes determining factor)

-TDF influences the development of gonads which become testes

-testes produce testosterone

-testosterone triggers the development of external male organs

-First 6-8 weeks = no gender

Question 16

male vs female hormones

Answer 16

Male hormones = androgens e.g testosterone

Female hormones = oestrogen + typically produce more oxytocin than men

Question 17

chromosomes

Answer 17

-Chromosomes = determines biological sex = found in nucleus of living cells carrying information in the form of genes (23 pairs) Chromosomes are small sections of DNA, containing genes which code for proteins and hormones.

Question 18

hormones

Answer 18

Hormones are released prenatally and in adolescence when we are exposed to a surge of hormones during puberty. –> chemical substance circulated in blood that controls + regulates activity

Question 19

case study (CAH)

Answer 19

Case study –> CAH (high prenatal levels of testosterone) –> Bailey 2003 found females with CAH are described by their family as tomboys and exhibit higher levels of aggression (powerful influence of male-sex hormones)t

Question 20

testosterone (Research and description)

Answer 20

-females = 10% the amount of testosterone found in men

-steroid hormone
-from androgen group -> mainly produced in testes at around 8 weeks of fetal development
-much research has focused on the behavioural effects of testosterone, mostly in terms of aggression
-influence of increased testosterone on aggressive behaviour

-Nanne Van De poll et al (1988) showed that female rats who had been injected with testosterone became more physically and sexually aggressive

Question 21

oestrogen (Research and description)

Answer 21

–steroid hormone
-determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation
-alongside physical changes, oestrogen causes women to experience heightened emotionality and irritability
-PMS and PMT

-in extreme cases PMS has been used successfully as a defence in cases of shoplifting and even murder. However some researchers still dispute the existence of PMS

Question 22

oxytocin research and description

Answer 22

polypeptide hormone usually as the result of giving birth

-produced outside and inside the brain

-neurotransmitter

-“love hormone”

-stimulates lactation making it possible for mothers to breastfeed their children

-also reduces stress hormone cortisol

fuelled the stereotype that men are less emotional in intimacy since they produce less oxytocin

-evidence suggests that both sexes produce oxytocin in roughly equal amounts during intimate activity

Question 23

women vs male chromosome

Answer 23

XX = women

XY = male

SRY = sex determining gene

Question 24

case study = determinist

Answer 24

Case study (deterministic view) –> Caster Semenya = hermaphrodite (women + man) –> question if she should be stripped in gold olympic medal. This research lacks temporal validity but shows furthering of scientific research + gender studies

Question 25

male brain sex differences

Answer 25

After 6 years old:

-hypothalamus is larger

-language tasks

-men use only left hemisphere

-superior for visuo-spatial skills

-supermale syndrome = XYY

Question 26

women brain sex differences

Answer 26

After 6 years old

-hypothalamus is smaller

-both sides of the brain used in language tasks

-some women have Y chromosome but are otherwise biologically women

-superior for verbal skills

Question 27

role of chromosomes in developmental stages

Answer 27

-Embryo is concieved –> zygote –> at 6 weeks gonads develop –> SRY gene –> Gonads produce hormones –> testosterone and oestrogen –> hormones affect pre-natal brain development –> hormones affect behaviour after birth

Question 28

strengths of roles of chromosmes and hormones

Answer 28

-Evidence to support role of chromosomes and hormones –> James Dabbs et al (1995) found that in a prison population, offenders with the highest levels of testoesterone were more likely to have comitted violent crimes. Stephanie et al –> studied transgender individuals who where undergoing hormone treatment and being injected with hormones of the opposite sex. Transgender women = decrease in visuo-spatial skills

Question 29

limitations of roles of chrosomones and hormones

Answer 29

-Contradictory evidence –> double blind study by Ray Tricker et al –> 43 males were either given placebo or testosterone. No significant dfiferences were found between 10 week period of the 2 groups. –> limit extent to which meaningful generalisations can be made

-objections to pre-menstural syndrome –> questioned the extent to which it can become a medical category. Rodin 1992 = PMS is a social construction

-overemphasis on nature –> importance of social learning theory

Question 30

Klinefelters syndrome

Answer 30

-affects 1/500 and 1/1000 men

-XXY = 1 more chromosome (total 47)

-Any sex chromosome that deviates from usual XY/XX formation –> tend to be associated with distinct patterns pf physical and psychological symptoms

-individuals who are affected by this are biologically male with an anatomical appearance of male

Physical –> breast tissue, reduced body hair

Psychological –> poor language, reading etc

Treatments –> testosterone supplements + speech and language therapy (SaLT)

Question 31

Turner syndrome

Answer 31

-affects 1/5000 biologically female

-loss of 1 chromosome (XO) –> total 45 chromosomes

-physical –> webbed neck, no periods, shorter, undeveloped breasts

-psychological –> socially immature + higher than average reading ability

-Treatments = hormone treatment

Atypical = sex chromosome pattern which deviates from usual XY/XX chromosome formation

Question 32

strenghts of atypical chromosomes

Answer 32

-contribute to nature vs nurture debate –> understanding of atypical sex chromosomes = See the psychological and behavioural differences between the 2 groups.

-practical application –> lead to more accurate diagnosis = increase awareness –>establish if behaviours are genetic or not

Question 33

limitations of atypical chromosomes

Answer 33

-However, there are environmental explanations –> not causal relationships –> environmental and social influences may be important in chromosomal abnormalites. Treated immaturely from others

-potential issues with generalisability

Question 34

two cognitive approaches to gender development

Answer 34

-Kohlbergs theory
-gender schema theory

Question 35

cognitive basis to gender development

Answer 35

-The basis behind the cognitive approach to gender considers our thought processes and cognitions. A child’s understanding of gender becomes increasingly sophisticated with age as their thinking becomes more sophisticated. Children being with a simple understanding of gender which gradually becomes more mature over complex stages.

Question 36

3 stages of gender development (kholberg)

Answer 36

gender identity
gender stability
gender constancy

Question 37

gender identitiy

Answer 37

1) Gender identity –> Ages 2-3.5 years –> Not aware that sex is permanent. Label gender but only based on appearance. Understanding tends not the stretch much beyond simple labelling e.g a man wearing a skirt is female

Question 38

gender stability

Answer 38

2) Gender stability –> Ages 3.5-4.5 –> Gender is not consistent overtime but not across situations. Appearance is still a factor. Identifies that people can change sex if they engage in activities that are more associated with the opposite gender. E.g a female builder or if a man has long hair it’s a women

Question 39

gender constancy

Answer 39

3) Gender constancy –> Age 6 years –> Gender is constant across time and situations. Gender appropriate behaviour and identify their own gender. No longer fooled by changes in outward appereance. E.g a man is still a man despite wearing a dress

Question 40

attention

Answer 40

It is only when children understand gender constancy he/she will become highly motivated to behave in a way that is expected of them as boy or girl (up until this stage, such information is not really relevant as the child believes their gender may change).

-Children pay attention and show systemic gender role behaviours only after they fully understand that gender is for lif

Question 41

the ken study

Answer 41

-got children ages 2-6 to look at a male ken doll and ken doll with a skirt on

-those at younger ages though the ken doll become a women when it wore a skirt

-ages 6 believed that the ken doll was still a man despite its outward appearance

Question 42

imitation of role models

Answer 42

-gender constancy is also significant in that children of this age being to seek out gender-appropriate roles to identity with and imitate (social learning theory). The child has fully developed and internalised concept of gender at constancy age.

Question 43

supporting research to Kholbergs’ theory

Answer 43

-Evidence for gender labelling comes from Thompson who showed that gender identification was more accurate in 3 years (90%) than 2 years old (76%) –> suggesting our cognitive skills mature

-Slaby and Frey asked young children “when you grow up wil you be more like mummy or daddy” –> children did not recognise these traits were stable overtime until they were 3 or 4

-McConaghy’s study showed children in Kohlbergs gender stability stage determined by the gender of the dolls by their clothing rather than genitalia

– Piaget conducted a set of stages in which children appear to develop through cognitively.
- at around 6/7, children are described as ‘egocentric’ and assume everyone sees the world the way they do.
- when they ‘decentre’, children begin to accept that their views may be different to others.
- they also develop ‘conservation’ when they realise so one or something can remain the same even if
their outward appearance changes.

Question 44

strengths of kholberg

Answer 44

-Evidence to support the sequency of stages –> Slaby and Frey –> Children were presented with split-screen images of males and females performing the same task. Younger children spently roughly the same time watching both sexes. Children in constancy stage spent more time watching those of the same sex.

-universiality of this theory –> Munroe et al –> cross-cultural evidence of Kholberg’s theory in countries as far as Kenya

-in line with biological approach

Question 45

limitations to kholberg

Answer 45

-constancy is not supported –> Kohlberg’s theory is undermined by the observation that many children begin to demonstrate gender appropriate behaviour before constancy is achieved. Bussey and Bandura found that children as young as 4 reported “feeling good” about gender appropriate toys.

-Methodological issues –> theory was developed using interviews. Kholberg did not acknowledge that the questions are too complex for younger children. Do not possess verbal ability to articulate their ideas

• problems of researcher bias due to Kohlberg conducting the interviews himself and having expectations (based upon his stages of intellectual development), means that the stages of gender development/identity are likely to be biased and lack ecological validity.

-Kohlberg’s stages of gender development and identity suffers from biological determinism as well as biological reductionism. This is because Kohlberg placed great emphasis on neurodevelopmental or maturational changes in the child, biological in origin, which were said to trigger transitions between the different stages. The theory also ignores the social influences, an example of determinism, which may affect the extent to which each child identifies with a specific gender e.g. parenting style, the parents’ own gender identity, media portrayals of gender ideals and the various psychological and personality aspects of gender. Therefore, Kohlberg’s theory may not be considered universal, as suggested by Munroe et al.

Question 46

schema

Answer 46

mental constructs that develop via experience and are used by our cognitive system to organise knowledge. Contribute to stereotypes etc

Question 47

ingroup vs outgroup

Answer 47

-In group –> groups you identify with –> much better understanding of schema’s that are appropriate to their own gender

-Out group –> groups you don’t identify with –> much better understanding of opposite gender identity

-Gender is acquired by gathering information about own gender, this happens before gender constancy.

Question 48

gender schema and gender identity

Answer 48

Gender schema is a generalised representation of everything we know in relation to gender and gender-appropriate behaviour.

Question 49

schema direct behaviour

Answer 49

Schema direct behaviour and self-understanding –> for young children, schema form from stereotyped views and later becomes a fixed perception.

In groups and out groups –> in group improves child self-esteem

Question 50

supporting and against research gender schema theory

Answer 50

-Bradbard et al (1986) –> When 4-9 year olds were told that certain neutral items were in fact boy or girl items they took greater interest in the ingroup labelled toys. A week later more details about the ingroup toys were accurately recalled than the toys in the outgroup.

Against research:

-Hoffman (1998) found that children whose mothers work have less stereotyped views of what men do. Suggesting children are not entirely fixed on gender schemas and can take on some gender inconsistent ideas.

Question 51

Martin and Halverson (1983)
-schema theory-

Answer 51

-juxtaposes Kholbergs view that the process only beings after all 3 stages (7 years) with gender constancy

-the research showed children pictures which included males and females in gender roles and non-gender roles. They asked children to recall pictures of people

Findings –> children under 6 recalled more gender consistent ones (male fire fighters) than gender-inconsistent ones (male nurse)

-Once the child has established gender identity they will search for information which encourages the development of the gender schema

-Children will adopt a genderalised view of gender identiity when they have congitive perception of associated behaviours

Question 52

kohlberg vs gender schema theory

Answer 52

-kholberg -> Gender consistency is the cause of gender identitity “my gender isnt going to change so I should start behaving like a boy”

-schema –> Gender identity is the cause of gender consistency “I’m a boy so I should find out how boys are supposed to behave”

Question 53

strengths of gender schema

Answer 53

-Evidence to support gender schema theory –> Martin and Halveson (consistency)

-rigidity of gender beliefs –> young children tend to hold very fixed and rigid gender attitudes –> children display a strong in group bias in terms of how they process information-> children pay more attention to information relevant to their own experience.

Question 54

limitations of gender schema

Answer 54

-overemphasis on the role of individual in gender development –> needs to take social roles into account.

• Gender schema theory takes on a hard determinist stance when explaining gender identity development. The theory suggests that, hypothetically, it should be possible to change a child’s behaviour if you change their stereotypes or provide them with conflicting stimuli from the opposite gender. However, research, such as that conducted by Kane and Sanchez (1994) has found that schemas and pre-conceived ideas about gender roles and gender equality are very difficult to break and so have little impact on behaviour. This means that the idea of gender schemas takes a very rigid outlook on gender development.

Question 55

psychosexual stages

Answer 55

-0-1 = oral stage –> fixation = recklessness, vanity, self pride etc

-1-3 = anal stage –> fixation = retentive or expulsive

-3-6 = phallic stage –> over gratified or undergratified

-6-12 = latency stage –> no fixation = repression

-12+ = genital stage –> no fixation and formation of heterosexual relationships

Question 56

pre phallic children

Answer 56

-prior to reaching the phallic stage (3-6) children have no concept or gender identity. Freud descried pre-phallic children as bisexual in the sense that they are neither masculine or feminine. In the phallic stage the focus of pleasure for the child switches to genitals. Oedpius or electra complex is crucial in the formation of gender identity

Question 57

oedipus complex

Answer 57

-boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother (habour a jealous and murderous hatred for the father who stands in the way of the boy possessing his mother).

-experiences castration anxiety

-to resolve this conflict the boy gives up his love for his mother and begins to identify with the father

Question 58

electra complex

Answer 58

-At the same age, girls experience Penis Envy, seeing mother as competition for their father’s love. Girls develop a double resentment towards their mother (lack of penis envy and love rival). Electra complex came from Carl Jung.

Question 59

identification and internalisation

Answer 59

-children of both sexes identify with the same-sex parent as a means of resolving their respective complexes

-boys adopt the attitudes and values of their fathers and girls of their mothers

-children falling on board the gender identity of their same sex parent is known as internalisation

-both boys and girls receive second hand gender identity all at once at the end of the phallic stage

Question 60

little hans

Answer 60

-Little Hans = case study example = where Freud believed that Little Hans’ phobia of horses was the result of the displacement (a defence mechanism) of castration anxiety from his father, onto the horse

Question 61

strengths of the psychodynamic approach to gender development

Answer 61

-internal validity + explanation for acquiring gender identity

Question 62

limitations of psychodynamic approach to gender development

Answer 62

-Research does not support the oedipus complex –> Freud’s theory implies that sons of very punitive and harsh fathers should go on to develop a more robust sense of gender identity than other boys bc of higher levels of anxiety so produce higher identification with the aggressor. However, this is not supported by Blackmore and Hill 2008 –> boys with liberal fathers tend to be more secure in their masculine identiity

-inadequate account of female development (androcentrism and gender bias) –> Freud’s notion of Penis envy was critised for being patriarchal. Karen Horney argues “womb envy”in react to a women’s nurture and ability to sustain life.

-Freud’s psychodynamic explanations of gender development can be said to lack scientific rigour, as well as the emphasis on objectivity and replicability associated with the natural sciences. This is a particular problem with the case study of Little Hans - Freud conducted the interviews himself, drawing very subjective interpretations of the data, which is likely to have poor inter-rater reliability due to the multiple subjective conclusions which can be drawn. Therefore, the ideas of the Oedipus and Electra Complexes are far from universal, and is capable of little generalisability to the general population because a baseline comparison must be provided by further examples.

Question 63

assumption of SLT to gender development

Answer 63

-learn and acquire gender identity through imitation

Assumptions of social learning theory:

-explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors

-learn through observation and imitation of others in a social context

-learning occurs directly through classical and operant conditioning

-children acquire gender identity and associated behaviour through SL concepts

Question 64

SLT and nuture

Answer 64

-behaviours that are reinforced are then imitated (Especially if that behaviour is rewarded)

-SLT is focused in nuture in childs development

Question 65

direct reinforcement

Answer 65

children are more likely to be reinforced for demonstrating behaviour that is gender appropriate e.g boys being athletic

Question 66

differential reinforcment

Answer 66

the way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender appropriate behaviour, through this, children learn gender identity

Question 67

indirect (vicarious) reinforcement

Answer 67

if the consequences of another persons behaviour are favourable that behaviour is more likely to be imitated by the child. If the consequences are unfavourable the behaviour is less likely to be imitated

Question 68

imitation

identification

modelling

Answer 68

Imitation –> individual observes a role model’s behaviour and copies it

Identification –> children are much likely to imitate the behaviour of people wth whom they identify called role models (modelling)

Modelling –> when someone is influential in some way

Question 69

mediational processes

Answer 69

-SLT is often described as the “bridge” between traditional learning theory and the cognitive approach. How mental factors mediate when a new response is acquired

-attention, retention, reproduction, motivation

-observed behaviours may be stored by the observer and reproduced at a later time

Question 70

Bandura bobo doll

Answer 70

Bandura bobo doll –> acquire appropirate gender behaviour through observation in social context

Question 71

how parents influence gender behaviours

Answer 71

-rewards boys for being athletic

-gender stereotypical expectations

-differential treatment of their daughters and sons e,g fathers would be more physically aggressive to sons

-observe and imitate parents

-traditional gender view vs creative gender parenting

Question 72

how peers influence gender behaviours

Answer 72

making fun of someone for being too feminine or too masculine

-in group interactions if peers influence gender appropriate behaviours

-gender bias reinforced by peers

-observe and imitate peers

Question 73

strenghts of SLT approach to gender

Answer 73

-takes thought processes into account and acknowleges the role that they play in deciding whether a behaviour should be imitated or not (mediational processes)

-successfully explain the initiation of certain behaviours e.g why someone would start smoking

-supporting evidence –> Smith and Lloyd involved 4-6 month old babies were dressed half the time in boys clothes and half the time in girls clothes. When observed by adults those assumed to be boys were given a hammer shaped rattle and for girls they were handed a cuddly teddy. Suggests that gender-approporate behaviour is reinforced from an early age = creates reinforcement

-explains changing gender roles –> shift in social expectations and cultural norms over time meant that new forms of acceptable behaviour have been reinforced e.g androgyny

Question 74

limitations of SLT approach to gender

Answer 74

-learning theory is not a full explanation of behaviour e.g if there is no role model or psychpathtic behaviour in family is not caused by imitation

-Bandura’s experiment = artificial so lacks ecological validity = little about how children learn in everyday life

-reductionist –> don’t mention biological factors

-A comparison with Freud’s psychodynamic explanation of gender development would suggest there are significant differences. For example, the hallmark of the psychodynamic approach is the emphasis on unconscious internal conflicts between the different parts of the personality (Id, ego and superego) over which we have no control, as opposed to seemingly ‘obvious’ conscious mediational processes. Therefore, through the idea of psychic determinism, individuals are said to have no control over the resolution of such conflicts and therefore no control over their own gender development! This implies that unconscious forces are more important in gender development than the social influences of others, alongside the mechanisms of reinforcement.

-— A comparison with the biological approach to explaining gender differences, specifically the role of atypical sex chromosome patterns and hormones such as androgens, suggests that SLT may suffer from an over-reliance on social influences on gender development. Therefore, it is now accepted that most researchers take a biosocial approach where they suggested innate biological differences can either be emphasised or even overridden through the mechanisms of SLT and (vicarious or differential) reinforcement. This means that SLT and the biological approach are at polar ends of the nature versus nurture debate, and that an interactionist ‘middle-ground’ would be a more accepted and accurate explanation of gender development.

-not a developmental theory –> doesn’t provide adequate response to how behaviours change with age e.g motor reproduction suggests that children struggle to perform behavours if they are intellectually incapable. Andrew Dubin (1992) suggests that selection and imitation doesn’t come till later. Influence of age and maturation is key

Question 75

essay plan

Answer 75

AO1 = culture, media, learn vicariously, studies which demonstrate cultural influences, studies which demonstrate media influences

AO3 = real life application
difficulty in research
limited by ignoring biology

Question 76

media = real life application

Answer 76

Pinagree ‘70- When children were shown ads with non-traditional gender roles stereotyping was reduced.

Question 77

one study that investigated cross cultural research and its limitation

Answer 77

One mark for identification of a relevant problem. ​
Up to two marks for relating the problem to the study. ​
Likely studies: Mead – Three tribes; La Fromboise; Buss etc.​
Likely problems: validity; researcher bias; ethnocentrism; subjectivity on the part of the researcher, lack of inter-rater reliability etc.​
Maximum of one mark if answer is totally generic and no study is identifiable.​

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This question required students to focus on a methodological problem of a study in which cultural variations in gender development were investigated. The first issue was that some of the studies chosen were not about cultural variation. The second was that some students lost focus and instead described the study rather than explaining the problem identified. Even when a methodological problem was given the explanations were often a jumble of psychological terminology such as – researcher bias, subjectivity, lack of validity, not reliable, that lacked coherence.

Question 78

interactionism =

Answer 78

gender differences are caused by innate tendencies that are modified by environmental factors

Question 79

mead =

Answer 79

natural experiment by social desirability bias

Question 80

malinowski =

Answer 80

gender bias = only focused on women

Question 81

how can cross cultural research be evaluated

Answer 81

The evidence from these studies has largely been collected by WESTERN RESEARCHERS working in a mixture of Western and non Western cultures.​

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Even if indigenous (local) researchers are carrying out the research they are still likely to be using tests developed by Western psychology. Such measures are described as Imposed Etics tests that produce results which may be meaningless in a culture other than the one in which the tests were developed. Therefore cross cultural research is a victim of Culture Bias! (A02)

Question 82

culture + evolution and history

Answer 82

Evolution? ​
Kimura (1999) – In hunting societies, those with poor spatial perception are likely to die out. Therefore there are no genes left in the gene pool. Therefore in societies where both men and women hunt, this could be why there are less differences in spatial abilities. ​

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Historical/Economical Changes?​
Eagly & Wood – Wealth = greater role equality. In societies where increased socioeconomic development had occurred, women had a higher status. The division of labour between men & women was less pronounced.

Question 83

social factors in culture

Answer 83

Van Leeuwen (1978) – Male superiority on spatial tasks was highest in sedentary societies where the division of labour is at its greatest. Men will be given practice from early childhood, in skills related to hunting. ​

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Schlegel & Barry (1986) - In societies where women take an equal role in hunting, women are allowed more freedom. This suggests that women take a higher position within their society and are less likely to feel the need to conform to the stereotypes/norms/demands of the more powerful members of society.

Question 84

collectivist

Answer 84

-collectivist = emphasis placed on the importance of the group/family unit. Individual success is much less important, it is more the group is successful e.g Kenya

Question 85

subculture

Answer 85

-subculture = subgroups that exist within the same culture yet may have different norms for acceptable behaviour

Question 86

individualistic

Answer 86

-individualistic = emphasis placed on the important of independence and individual success. Often applies to Western cultures.

Question 87

culture

Answer 87

-culture = the whole way of life of a particular group or society. Things are passed down from generation to generation through socialization. Cultures are different around the world and change over time.

Question 88

similar vs different traits

Answer 88

Similar traits across different cultures = innate factors in human nature

Different traits across different cultures = nurture + environmentally determined

Question 89

research supporting cultural differences

Answer 89

Mead (1935) –> studied gender roles and behaviours in three different tribal societies living close to eachother in new Guinea. She documented the tribe’s lifestyle day to day (differed substanstially). Arapresh tribe = high value on co-operation = both boys and girls were gentle and loving.

Mundugumor tribe = children were fierce and arrogant = both men and women hated pregnancy

Tchambuli tribe = men were regarded as emotional and unfit for serious decisions, differing greatly to Western cultures

Malinowski (1929) –> studied Trobian islanders. In documenting their sexual behaviour he reported the women were highly sexually aggressive. = repuation to their tribe

Buss et al (1990) –> examined the features women and men look for in potential partners. In all of 37 cultures they compared women’s concerns in finding a mate were financial and status while for men it was physical attractiveness.

Question 90

no cultural differences

Answer 90

However, there are also similarities between cultures concerning gender roles. For example, Munroe and Munroe (1975) suggested that the labour and tasks given to women and men, in the traditional sense, across various cultures is often determined by the traditional divide between men and women i.e. women tend to the house, whilst men are more skilled at manual labour.

Question 91

fafafini

Answer 91

-masculine people who behave in a feminine manner and attracted to males (androphillic) = in western cultures they would be known as homosexual but in Somoa = “in the manner of a women” = 3rd gender

Question 92

strengths and limitations of cultural research into gender development

Answer 92

Strengths = high validity + natural study = lacks mundane realism

Limitations:

-criticisms of Mead’s research –> observer bias = lack longitudinal validity. Freeman (1983) was highly critical of Mead’s research and concluded her results were flawed as she was mislead by a ppts.

-issue of imposed etic –> Western researchers take on observing indigenous cultures = may impose western cultures on these indigenous ppl. — Such cross-cultural research may also be guilty of imposed etic, as suggested by Bowlby. This is when researchers study behaviour from outside a specific group and generalise this as being universal. Just because cultural differences in gender roles exist within

-correlation = not causation

Question 93

media and gender roles

Answer 93

-The media provide role models with whom children may identify with and want to imitate. As we have seen, children are likely to select role models who are the same sex as they are and who engage in gender-appropriate behaviour, as this is more likely to be reinforced

Question 94

rigid stereotypes

Answer 94

Bussey and Bandura (1999) found that men are independent, ambitious and advice givers whilst women are dependent, unambitious and advice listeners. Similarly a study of TV adverts by Furnham and Frarragher (2000) found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous or professional roles whilst women are seen as occuping domestic settings.

Question 95

information giving

Answer 95

There is also evidence that children who have more exposure to popular forms of media tend to display more gender stereotypical roles (McGee and Frueh 1980). May also provide the success in adopting these gender roles. (self-efficacy)s

Question 96

strengths of media and gender roles

Answer 96

-real life applications + research support e.g Bussey and Bandura

-Social learning theory suggests we learn gender roles by observation of role models and we copy or imitate the models we see, especially if we see those models being rewarded or reinforced for such behaviours.

The media provides us with role models, and often males and females in the media are portrayed in gender-stereotypical ways; for example, females looking after children and males as breadwinners.

If there are cultural differences in gender roles, we can explain these through socialisation and experience, which is how social learning theory suggests we acquire gender roles.

Question 97

limitations of media and gender roles

Answer 97

-Correlation not causation –> media may only be reflecting prevailing gender stereotypes and social norms about males and females. As most ppts are exposed to media a control group cannot be established.

-Counter stereotypes = Disney movie Brave contradicts typical notions of masuclinity and femininety. Pingree (1978) demonstrated that female infants are more appreciative and accepting of media which presents other females in non-traditional roles, whilst male infants are more ‘set in their ways’, suggesting that there are significant gender differences in their perception of their own and the opposite gender’s traditional stereotype and role.

-The conclusions based on studies investigating the influence of media on gender roles must take into account the lack of control groups, because the vast majority of children are exposed to media on a consistent basis from a very young age. Therefore, there can be no statistical analysis to determine whether the influence of media is statistically significant and whether this influence is stronger than other confounding and extraneous variables which are also associated with media exposure e.g. the length and intensity of exposure.

Question 98

role culture on gender roles

Answer 98

gender behaviour = universal or culturally specificm

Question 99

media =

Answer 99

reinforces seterotypical gender perspectives

Question 100

one or more social explanations of gender dysphoria

Answer 100

learned via observation e.g young boy may identify with female role models so imitate more female behaviour instead of approprate masculinity

Question 101

16 marker AO1 for one or more explanations to gender dysphoria

Answer 101

-define gender dysphoria + DSM
-brain sex theory (biological)
-research (zouh)
-separation anxiety (Social)
-research (stoller)

Question 102

atypical gender development

Answer 102

-Gender dysphoria is a condition where a person experiences discomfort or distress because theres a mismatch between their biological sex and gender identity.

-biological sex is assigned on birth due to genitalia but this is different to gender identity e.g a person may have the anatomy of a man but identify as a women

-gender dysphoria is recognised as a medical condition

-Many individuals with GID will identify themselves as transgender and may opt for gender reassignment surgery to change their external genitalia to that of the desired sex

Question 103

gender dysphoria

Answer 103

Gender dysphoria = characterised by strong, persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with ones assigned sex. Often use mannerisms associated with opposite gender.

Transexual people = treatment to make their physical appereance more consistent with their gender identity

Question 104

DSM diagnosis of gender dysphoria

Answer 104

-affect ability to function in everyday life

-feel strong sense of discomfort with biological sex

-onging identification with the opposite sex

Question 105

biological influences to gender dysphoria

Answer 105

-Genetic influences –> Cooldige et al (2002) –> assessed 157 twin pairs. 62% of pairs = prevelance of GD (strongly heritable component).

-dysphoria is physiologically determined

-influence of prenatal hormones – androgen insensitivity syndrome –> Girls with androgen insensitivity look like normal females and go through puberty and normal breast development, but because their bodies cannot use testosterone, they will have scant or no pubic and armpit hair. Inside her body, the internal sexual organs don’t form normally.

-Brain sex theory –> Dysphoria is caused by specific brain structures that are incompatible with a persons biological sex. Particular attention has been paid to those areas of the brain that are dimorphic (take different form in males and females) Zouh et al (1995) = studied bed nucleus which is assumed to be fully developed at age 5 and was around 40% larger in males then females. In 6 transgender post-morterms a man who transitioned to female has similar size to females

Question 106

effect of testosterone

Answer 106

large Iranian sample, comparing 104 transwomen and 89 transmen against controls

Studies suggest that high levels of prenatal testosterone in females and low levels in males might contribute to GID.

These findings support the idea that high levels of prenatal T in natal females and low levels in natal males play a part in the aetiology of GID.

Question 107

social influences on gender dysphoria

Answer 107

-Distorted parental attitudes (Stoller) –> with gender dysphoria biological males they were seen to display overly close relationships with their mothers would display greater female identification and atypical gender identity in the long term

-learned via socialisation process

-Childhood trauma –> Ovesry and Person (1973) = gender dysphoria is caused by extreme separation anxiety before gender identitity has been established. To become the mother they adopt female identification.

-cognitive explanation –> Liben and Bigler (2002) proposed an extension of gender schema theory that emphasises individual differences in gender identity. (dual pathway of gender development). First pathway = gender schema theory. Or interests may become more dominant and thus influence activity e.g boy who likes playing with dolls may get a sex-fixed schema to believing he is a girl for liking these things

Question 108

strengths = atypical gender development

Answer 108

-Research support = internal validity

-real life applications = increase understanding + help those struggling with gender dysphoria

Question 109

limitations = atypical gender development

Answer 109

-contradictory evidence for brain sex theory –> Pol et al 2006 found that transgender hormone therapy does affect BSTc so may suggest these changes are due to hormone treatment rather than gender dysphoria. Chung et al = prenatal influences that affect BSTc are not triggered until adulthood bringing question to childhood diphoric influences.

-Twin studies are inconclusive –> not high concordance rates. (39% Heylens et al). = limiting extent to which generalisations can be made.

-Biological explanations oversimplify a complex topic –> other factors may be working at a higher psychological level e.g social explanations rather than biological which may be disregarded. Interactionist approach should be done.

• The psychoanalytic theory proposed by Ovesey and Person may be considered limited and gender-biased because it only offers an explanation for the development of GID in males, because females (according to this theory) do not feel the same pressure to take on the role of the mother in fear of separation. This idea was supported by Rekers (1986), who suggested that GID in males is more motivated by the lack of a father during the critical period for attachment formation, as opposed to an absent mother. Therefore, the subjective nature of the unconscious concepts proposed by the psychoanalytic theory reduces the scientific credibility of such explanations.