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Aqa a level psychology > Biopsychology > Flashcards

Biopsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

the nervous system

A

-The nervous system –> specialized network of cells that provides the body’s communication system. Collects/responds information from the environment and coordinates organs/cells of the body

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2
Q

what are the two subsections of the nervous system

A

CNS –> central nervous system (spine + brain)

PNS –> peripheral nervous system (muscles, glands, effectors)

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3
Q

order of the nervous system

A

Nervous system –> CNS –> spinal cord –> Brain –> PNS –> somatic nervous system –> autonomic nervous system –> sympathetic nervous system –> parasympathetic nervous system

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4
Q

CNS

A

brain and spinal cord

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5
Q

the brain

A

-involved in all psychological processes

-divided into 4 main regions

-occipital lobe = processes visual information

-temporal lobe = processes auditory information

-parietal lobe = integrates information from senses and spatial navigation

-frontal lobe = associated with high order functions e.g logic etc

-brain stem = connects brain and spinal cord

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6
Q

spinal cord

A

-transfers messages to and from the brain and rest of body

-responsible for simple reflex actions

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7
Q

PNS

A

relay messages (nerve impulses) from the CNS to the rest of the body. Consists of 2 main components; somatic and autonomic nervous system

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8
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

-maintains communication between CNS and outside world

-consists of sensory receptors which carry information to the spinal cord and brain e.g detect if it is hot or cold

-motor pathways allow the brain to control movement

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9
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

-plays an important role in homeostasis which maintains internal processes like bodily temperature, heart rate and blood pressure

-only consists of motor pathways and has two components

-sympathetic nervous system + parasympathetic nervous system

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10
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

involved in responses that prepare the body for fight or flight. Increases heart rate, blood pressure, inhibits bladder/digestion, dialate pupils etc

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11
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A

Parasympathetic nervous system –> returns body to its normal resting state e.g contracts bladder, slows heartbeat, constrict pupils

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12
Q

true or false - the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system can occur at the same time

A

false - separate processes

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13
Q

the endocrine system

A

The endocrine system is made up of a series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones. Like neurotransmitters, hormones are chemical messengers that must bind to a receptor in order to send their signal.

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14
Q

glands

A

pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, ovaries, testes, thyroid, adrenal gland

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15
Q

pineal gland

A

Pineal gland (brain) –> releases melatonin –> responsible for important biological rhythms e.g sleep

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16
Q

hypothalamus

A

Hypothalamus (brain) –> stimulates and controls the release of hormones from the pituitary gland

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17
Q

thyroid

A

Thyroid gland (neck) –> releases thyroxine –> responsible for regulating metabolism

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18
Q

pituitary gland

A

Pituitary gland (brain) –> releases oxytocin (uterus contracting during childbirth) and releases ACTH (stimulates adrenal cortex and release of cortisol during stress response)

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19
Q

ovaries

A

Ovaries (female) –> releases oestrogen to stimulate release of egg and regulates menstruation

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20
Q

testes

A

Testes (male) –> releases testosterone and sperm

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21
Q

adrenal gland (medulla)

A

Adrenal gland (medulla) –> releases adrenaline and nonadernaline which are key hormones in fight or flight response

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22
Q

adrenal gland

A

Adrenal gland (cortex) –> releases cortisol and glucose to provide body with energy while suppressing immune system

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23
Q

explain the role of hormones in human behaviour

A

-hormones are chemical messengers that are released from endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to influence the nervous system and regulate behaviours

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24
Q

explain what is meant by the fight or flight response

A

The fight or flight response is an automatic physiological reaction to an event that is perceived as stressful or frightening. The perception of threat activates the sympathetic nervous system and triggers an acute stress response that prepares the body to fight or flee.

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25
Q

mylein sheath

A

Myelin Sheath - fatty layer, protects the axon, speeds up electrical transmission of impulse

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26
Q

axon

A

carries impulses away from the cell body, down the length of the neuron

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27
Q

dendrite

A

branch-like structures that protrude from the cell body and carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons towards the cell body

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28
Q

what happens to sympathetic nervous system during fight or flight

A

-pupils dilate
-increased heart rate and blood pressure
-increased alertness
-increase blood flow
-reduced digestive activity to conserve activity

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29
Q

exam response - exiactory vs inhibitory

A

inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g.
serotonin) reduce the potential difference across the postsynaptic membrane through the closure of
the voltage-dependent sodium ion channels, reducing the likelihood that an action potential will be
generated.
* Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g. dopamine) increase the potential difference across the
postsynaptic membrane through triggering the opening of more voltage-dependent sodium ion
channels, increasing the likelihood that an action potential will be generated.

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30
Q

assumptions by biopsychologists

A

-biopsychologists assume that behaviour and experiences are caused by activity in the nervous system

-the nervous system transmits signals for communication via the billions of nerve cells (neurons) it has

-the nerve cells communicate with each other through electrical and chemical messages within the body and brain

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31
Q

define a neuron

A

nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals (conduct nerve impulses)

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32
Q

types of neurons

A

sensory
relay
motor

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33
Q

sensory neuron

A

-carry messages from PNS to CNS (impulse to spinal cord)

-long dendrite

-short axon

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34
Q

relay neuron

A

-connecting nerve

-connects the sensory neuron to motor or other relay neurons

-short dendrite

-short axon

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35
Q

motor neuron

A

-connect CNS to effectors such as muscles or glands

-short dendrite

-long axon

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36
Q

knee jerk reflex (reflex arc steps)

A

-1) A stimulus is detected by sense organs in the peripheral nervous system
2) Sense organs convey a message along a sensory neuron
3)Message reaches CNS
4) CNS connects with a relay neuron
5) Relay neuron transfers message to a motor neuron
6) Motor neuron carries message to an effector (such as a muscle)
7) This causes a reflex response (e.g. causes muscles in knee to contract –> knee moves or jerks - knee-jerk response)

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37
Q

synapse

synaptic transmission

A

Synapse – junction/gap between 2 neurons

Synaptic transmission –> process by which neighboring neurons communicate with eachother

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38
Q

neurotransmitters

A

-chemicals that are released from a synaptic vesicle into the synapse by neurons

-they affect the transfer of an impulse to another nerve or muscle

-these neurotransmitters are “taken back up” into the terminal buttons of neurons through the process of reuptake or are broken down by an enzyme

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39
Q

action potential

A

occurs when a neuron sends information down an axon away from the cell body. An actional potential is an explosion of electrical activity which means a stimulus causes the resting potential to move forward

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40
Q

synaptic connections

A

Synaptic connections can be excitatory or inhibitory – difference lies in the action of the neurotransmitter at the post synaptic receptor

-normal brain function depends upon a regulatory balance between both synaptic connections

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41
Q

Excitatory

A

Excitatory – makes it more likely that the next neuron will fire e.g nonadrenaline –> EPSP (excitatory post synaptic potential

e.g if nonadrenaline binds to post synaptic receptors it will cause an electrical charge in the cell membrane which results in an EPSP

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42
Q

Inhibitory

A

Inhibitory – makes it less likely that the next neuron will fire e.g serotonin –> IPSP (inhibitory post synaptic potential)

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43
Q

process of synaptic transmission

A

1) nerve impulse travels down an axon

2) nerve impulse reaches the synaptic terminal

3) this triggers the release of neurotransmitters

4) the neurotransmitters are fired into the synaptic gap

5) neurotransmitter binds with receptors on the dendrite of the adjacent neuron

6) if successfully transmitted the neurotransmitter is taken up by the post-synaptic neuron

7) the message will continue to be passed this way via electrical impulses

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44
Q

fight or flight

A

-the nervous system breaks down even further

-two divisions of the autonomic nervous system are:

-sympathetic branch (responsible for fight or flight response)

-parasympathetic branch (brings body back to normal after fight or flight response)

Purpose of the fight or flight response is to enable the body to take action and protect itself in dangerous situations. Ensures a reaction to potentially life threatening experience

Fight or flight response –> innate and automatic mode for survival

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45
Q

sympathetic

A

-dilates pupils

-inhibits flow of saliva

-accelerates heartbeat

-dilates bronchi

-inhibits secretion and peristalsis

-conversion of glycogen to glucose

-secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline

-inhibits bladder contraction

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46
Q

parasympathetic

A

-constricts pupils

-stimulates flow or saliva

-slows heartbeat

-constricts bronchi

-stimulates release of bile

-contracts bladder

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47
Q

steps for fight or flight response

A

1) Situation is appraised and perceived as stressful by amygdala

2) Hypothalamus is alerted whch recognises the stress is acute so activates the sympathomeduallary (SAM) pathway

3) This activates the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system

4) This then stimulates the adrenal medulla which is part of the adrenal gland

5) The adrenal medulla secretes the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream

6) this prepares the body for fight or flight and as such causes a number of physical bodily changes e.g dialates pupils

7) However, the body cannot maintain this increased level of activity so after time the parasympathetic branch of the nervous system is activated (returns body back to normal resting rate)

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48
Q

how are localisation and holistic theory different

A

localisation is more reductionist and states that some parts of the brain have particular purposes whereas holism refers to a theory stating that various brain parts are not localized and cannot get differentiated

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49
Q

what is the cerebal cortex

A

outer layer that lies on top of the cerebrum. It carries out essential functions of your brain such as memory, thinking, learning and reasoning

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50
Q

localisation of function

A

-The theory that specific areas of the brain are responsible for different behaviours, processes or activities (physical and psychological functions)

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51
Q

division of the brain

A

-the brain is divided into 2 hemispheres (left and right)

-language areas are only found in the left hemisphere

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52
Q

parts of the brain

A

-frontal lobe
-temporal lobe
-parietal lobe
-occipital lobe

-motor cortex
-auditory cortex
-wernicke’s area
-broca’s area
-visual area
-somatosensory area

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53
Q

frontal lobe

A

Frontal lobe –> Front of head (left side) –> Home of personality and mood e.g voluntary movement, excessive language, higher cognitive functions (CONSCIOUSNESS)

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54
Q

temporal lobe

A

Temporal lobe –> Above cerebellum –> auditory information –> manage emotions, store memories and understand language (AUDITORY AND MEMORY)

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55
Q

occipital lobe

A

Occipital lobe –> Right side of temporal lobe –> visual functions –> interpretate information from the eyes (VISUAL)

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56
Q

parietal lobe

A

Parietal lobe –> Right side of frontal lobe –> respond to sensory information (SENSORY AND MOTOR)

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57
Q

Cerebellum

A

Cerebellum –> corpus callosum -> enable messages to move from left and right hemisphere. Regulates higher intellectual processes. Outermost layer called cerebral cortex (grey matter)

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58
Q

motor area

A

Motor area –> region in frontal lobe involved in regulating movement

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59
Q

Broca’s area

A

Broca’s area –> Area of frontal lobe in left hemisphere responsible for speech production. If damaged can lead to speech aphasia

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60
Q

auditory area

A

Auditory area –> Located in temporal lobe and concerned with analysis of speech based information

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61
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

Wernicke’s area –> Located in temporal lobe in left hemisphere responsible for language comprehension

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62
Q

visual area

A

Visual area –> Part of occipital lobe that receives and processes visual information

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63
Q

somatosensory area

A

Somatosensory area –> area of parietal lobe that processes sensory information such as touch

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64
Q

strengths of localisation of function

A

-brain scan evidence –> Petersen et al –> Discovered Wernicke’s area as active during a listening task and Broca’s area was active during a reading task –> objective method for measuring brain activity

-neurosurgical evidence -> lobotomy

-Case study evidence –> Phineas Gage –> damage to frontal lobe has impact on personality

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65
Q

Limitations of localisation of function

A

-Reductionist –> plasticity –> brain attempts to recognise itself and recover lost function when damage is done e.g stroke patients (law of equipotentiality)

-Case studies cannot be generalised

-Lashley’s research –> higher cognitive functions are distributed more holistically. He removed 10-50% of a rats brain and no area was proven to be anymore important, all was required to learn to maze – learning is too complex to be localised

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66
Q

case of phineas gage

A

-rod went through his left cheek due to an explosion damaging his frontal lobe

-he vomited a teacupful of brain, dropped in an out of a coma, has hemorrhages and epilepsy

-damage to personality –> turned from someone calm and reserved to someone rude and quick-tempered.

-disrespectful to colleagues, unable to accept advice

-impulsive and blasphemous

-supports localisation theory

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67
Q

explain how a hierachy and relaxation might be used in the treatment of someone who has a phobia of wasps

A

-client and the therapist work together
-list situations from provoking least to most anixety
-client can only move onto next stage if they have managed to stay calm at previous ones
-relaxation techniques = meditation and breathing exercises

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68
Q

Outline brain localisation of function, use research to support your points (6 marks)

A

-define localisation of function
-2 hemispheres and 4 lobes
-Brocas and Wernicke’s area
-Phineas gage
-holistic theory
-summarise point

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69
Q

grey matter =

A

connections

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70
Q

define plasticity

A

Plasticity = Refers to the brain’s ability to physically and functionally adapt and change in response
trauma, new experiences and learning

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71
Q

what does the right hemisphere control

A

left side of the body

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72
Q

brain plasticity

A

-Brain plasticity –> brain can grow new facts and association. Our brain/neurons can develop and learn new things past adulthood

-the capacity of living things mold themselves in new conditions –> brain cells and synapses change connections everyday.

-number of synapses peaks when your young and learning

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73
Q

pruning

A

Pruning –> weaking and removal of connections that you no longer need (connections are lost due to lack of use)

74
Q

bridging

A

Bridging –> where new connections are created due to use and new stimulus

75
Q

research into plasticity (Maguire)

A

-Maguire (2000) Taxi drivers –> Found a significantly larger volume of grey matter (connections for spatial awareness) in posterior hippocampus (associated with spatial navigation skills) than in a control group. The result of complex knowledge test by taxi drivers alters the structure of taxi drivers brains (more neuronal pathways) (longer drivers = more structural difference in brains)

76
Q

research into plasticity (davidson)

A

-Meditation –> (evidence for bridging as it involves training the mind to find relief and contentment). Davidson et al 2004 studied Tibetan monks and compared them to non-meditation controls. Each group was told to meditate for a short period of time and were fitted with an electrical sensor. Monk group showed higher levels of gamma activity which coordinates neurons.

77
Q

functional recovery

A

Functional recovery after trauma –> a form of plasticity following damage through trauma. The brains ability to redistribute or transfer functions usually performed by a damaged area to an other undamaged area

78
Q

structural changes in brain after trauma

A

axonal sprouting, reformation of blood vessels, recruitment of homologous areas

79
Q

axonal sprouting

A

Axonal sprouting –> the growth of new nerve endings which connect with other undamaged nerve cells to form new neuronal pathways

80
Q

reformation of blood vessels

A

-Reformation of blood vessels –> facilitates the growth of new neural pathways

81
Q

recruitment of homologous pairs

A

Recruitment of homologous areas –> similar areas on the opposite side of the brain to perform specific tasks e.g if Broca’s area was damaged on left side of the brain the right side equivalent would carry on its function

82
Q

case study of Jody Miller

A

-3 year old girl with epileptic seizures that took over her brain causing her to almost loose control of her left arm

-right hemisphere was damaged

-she has surgery which removed her right hemisphere and fill it with spinal fluid

-had almost all motor functions post-operation except slight paralysis in her left hand

-This shows evidence for plasticity and functional recovery as her left side of brain connected almost immediately (recuitment of homolgous areas)

83
Q

strengths of plasticity and functional recovery

A

-Practical application of neurorehabilitation –> following illness or injury spontaneous recovery seems to decrease so physical therapy may be needed to maintain improvements in function e.g motor therapy. This shows that although the brain may have the capacity to “fix itself” this process requires intervention to be completley successful.

-Support from animal studies –> David Hubel and Weisel involved sewing one eye of a kitten shut and analysing the brains cortical responses. It was found that the area of the visual cortex associated with the shut eye was not idle but continued in the other eye. (supports homologous areas)

-Case study evidence – Jody Miller

-Cognitive reserve is the level of education a person has attained and how long they have been in education. Research suggests that an increased cognitive reserve increases the likelihood of making a disability-free recovery (DFR) after trauma, due to increased rates of neuroplasticity. For example, Schneider et al (2014) found that of the 769 patients studied, 214 achieved DFR after 1 year. Of those, 50.7% had between 12 8 and 15 years of previous education and 25.2% had more than 16 years. This suggests that individuals who have been in education for a longer time may have developed the ability to form neuronal connections at a high rate, and therefore experience high levels of functional recovery, demonstrating positive plasticity.

84
Q

limitations of plasticity and functional recovery

A

-Negative plasticity –> brains ability to rewire itself can have maladaptive consequences. E.g Prolonged drug use has been shown to result in poorer cognitive functioning as well as increased risk of dementia (Medina 2007). Ramachadndran and Hirsten found 60-80% of amputees experience phantom limb syndrome.

-Age –> functional plasticity tends to reduce with age and has a greater propensity for reorganisation in childhood as it is constantly learning. However, it is still possible when combined with physical therapy e.g motor movements (Bezzola) showed that 40 hours of golf training can lead to increased neural represenations of movement

-concept of cognitive reserve –> persons educational attainment may influence how well brain functionality adapts after injury

85
Q

define lateralization

A

-Lateralisation –> the fact that two halves of the brain are functionally different and each hemisphere has functional specializations

86
Q

left hemisphere

A

-processes information from the right side of the body

-language center of the brain

-controls right hand

-receives information from right visual field

-explanations and reasoning

87
Q

right hemisphere

A

-processes information from left side of the body

-focuses on visuo-spatial tasks

-controls left hand

-receives information from left visual field

-attention + facial recognition + no language

88
Q

sperry split brain research

A

Background –> Sperry’s study involved a unique group of individuals who had undergone a conmissatoumy (corpus collosum removed) to control frequent epileptic seizures – quasi experiment

Aims:

-what happens when two halves of the brain are disconnected

-do the hemispheres perform different functions

-does each hemisphere have its own memories, perceptions and concepts

89
Q

procedure of sperry’s split brain research

A

-image of an image or word was projected on an individuals right or left visual field to be processed by left/right hemisphere. This mean that information could not be conveyed from one hemisphere to the other

-11 eplieptic patients

-patients had one of their eyes closed so information would not be received by both eyes

-stimuli flashed on screen for 1/10th of a second

-in the corpus callosum of a normal brain the imahe would be immeditatley shared

-2 groups (control and real)

90
Q

results of sperry’s experiment

A

-if the stimulus was exposed to the right visual field then it would be processed by the left hemisphere and the patient would say the word

-if the stimulus was exposed to the left visual field it would be processed by the right hemisphere and the patient would write the word with their left hand

-The right hemisphere could match a list of faces to a given stimulus

-if an object was placed into the patients right hand they would be unable to identify it was there but if it was placed in the left hand the patient would be able to identify it

-picture shown to left visual field = cannot describe or notice it

91
Q

conclusions of sperry’s experiment

A

-when two halves of the brain are disconnected they cannot interact and perform at the same time

-the left and right hemisphere perform different functions

-Each hemisphere has its own perceptions and memories

-one half the brain doesn’t know what the other half is doing (2 separate streams of consciousness)

-gives evidence to lateralisation

92
Q

strengths of lateralisation

A

-split brain patient work has provided a considerable amount of research into lateralisation. Left = language, right = visuo-spatial

-Sperry’s research used controlled conditions = valid and reliable + standardized –> time of image presented was controlled and the same for all ppts

-Clearly demonstrated lateralisation of function = Split-brain research was pivotal in establishing the differences in functions between the two hemispheres, and so opposing the holistic theory of brain function. The left hemisphere was demonstrated as being dominant for language tasks, due to containing language centres, whereas the right hemisphere was demonstrated as being dominant for visuo-spatial tasks. Therefore, this suggests that the left hemisphere is the analyser, whereas the right hemisphere is the synthesiser, and so there are marked differences between the two.

-supporting research evidence

-spung psychological debate

93
Q

limitations of lateralisation

A

-Szaflarski et all –> language became more lateralised to left hemisphere with increasing age in children and adolescents but after 25 lateralisation decreased –> changes with aging and become more bilateral in healthy older adults –> lateralisation only in young adults

-Overemphasis on difference between hemispheres (much more intricate and complex than polar differences)

-Gazzangia –> split brain research = disconfirmed –> right hemisphere was unable to handle rudimentary language. J.W. developed the capacity to speak out the right hemisphere and left

-Sperry’s research lacks population validity = cannot be generalised –> The epileptic patients had been taking anti-epilepsy medications for extended and different periods of time, which may have affected their ability to recognise objects and match words, due to causing cerebral neuronal changes. Secondly, although all patients had undergone a commissurotomy, there may have been differences in the exact procedures e.g. differing extent of the lesioning of the corpus callosum. This would have affected the degree to which the two hemispheres could relay information between themselves. Therefore, these two confounding variables had not been controlled, meaning that the lateralised functions may be examples of unreliable causal conclusions.

-sperry’s research lacks ecological validity = in real life situations patients can composenate by having same experiences rather can viewing separate tasks

94
Q

corpus callosum

A

nerve endings that connect the left and right hemisphere

95
Q

left hemisphere =

A

verbalise things and language comprehension

96
Q

define circadian rhythm

A

-circadian rhythm –> a type of biological rhythm subject to a 24 hour cycle which regulates a number of body processes such as sleep/wake cycle or changes in core body temperature

97
Q

circadium rhythms facts

A

-main regulator for circadian rhythms are found in the hypothalamus (manage body temp, hunger etc)

-SCN cells respond to light and dark -> alertness sharpens at light (morning)

-disruption to natural rhythms can lead to health conditions e.g obesity

98
Q

how circadium rhythms work

A

-light provides primary input acting as external cue for sleeping or waking

-light is detected by eye which sends messages to SCN cells

-The SCN then uses information to coordinate the ability of the entire circadian rhythm w homeostasis

-human body temperature is lowest at 4:30am and highest at 6pm. Sleep occurs when core body temperature starts to drop

99
Q

internal body clocks

A

-internal biological clocks –> endogenous pacemakers and external changes in the environment are known as exogenous zeitgebers

-ultradian = occur many times in one day

Intradian = longer than 1 day

100
Q

hormones involved in circadium rhythms

A

Hormones affected by circadium rhythms = melatonin (causes drowsiness and lowers body temp) and cortisol (makes us feel awake)

101
Q

Michel Siffre

A

-self styled caveman who spent several extended periods underground to study the effects of his own biological rhythms when deprived of natural light and sound

-2 months in cave and recreated 10 years later for 6 months

-his biological rhythm settled down to one that was just beyond the visual 24 hours though he did continue to fall asleep on a regular schedule (body clock was 25hr)

-bodys day is not identical to 24hr day

-internal alarm clock even when there is no influence from other things

102
Q

Aschoff and Wever

A

Aschoff and Wever –> convinced a group of participants to spend 4 weeks in a WW2 bunker deprived or natural light. All but one of these participants had their cycle extended to 29 hours.

103
Q

strenghts of research into circadium rhythms

A

-Practical application to shift work –> shift work has been found to lead desynchronization of circadian rhythms and can lead to adverse cognitive and physiological effects. E.g night shift workers suffer concentration lapse at 6am which increase the likelihood of accidents and more likely to suffer from heart disease. This has economic implications in terms of mainting worker productivity and preventing accidents in the workplace

-Pharmacokinetics application –> by understanding the impact of circadium rhythms on health it can help determine the best time to administer drug treatments. E.g risk of heart attack is greatest in early morning so drugs are taken at night and not released at dawn would be the most effective

-Support from cave study –> Michael Siffre and Wever and Schoff = research application –> suggsests that the body’s internal clock is set 24-25 hours in the absence of external cues and is intolerant of any major alterations to sleep and wake cycles such as shift work

104
Q

limitations of research into ciracdium rhythms

A

-Issues with case study evidence –> impossible to generalise to whole populations of people due to individual differences e.g Siffre noted that he went into the cave at 60yr and his body responded differently with his clock following more of a 48hr cycle. Czesler found that cycles can vary as much as 13-65 hours. Age and gender have diff impacts on ciracdium rhythms

-Poor control in studies –> exposure to artificial lights and phones was not controlled – it was assumed only natural light has an influence on biological rhythms but research by Czeisler found that dim artificial lighting could adjust circadim rhythm between 22-28 hours. This means that results of original studies may lack validity

105
Q

ultradium rhythms

A

-The ultradian cycle has a shorter period than a day but is longer than an hour. It repeats during a 24-hour circadian day. e.g sleep-wake cycle

106
Q

infradian rhythms

A

-Infradian rhythms are biological rhythms that occur in a repeating cycle that lasts longer than 24 hours e.g mensturation

107
Q

example of endogenous system and exogenous

A

Example of endogenous system = sleep-wake cycle

Example of an exogenous zeitgerber = light

108
Q

2 types of infradian rhythms

A

menstrual cycle
SAD

109
Q

menstrual cycle

A

-governed by monthly changes in hormone levels which regulate ovulation

-28 day cycle (24-35 day range)

-rise of oestrogen causes the drop and release of an egg (ovulation)

-progesterone thickens the womb lining for pregnancy

-it is an endogenous system but can be influenced by exogenous factors

110
Q

SAD cycle

A

SAD (seasonal affective disorder):

-persistent low mood, lack of activity or interest in life

-“winter blues” -> depressive symptoms triggered by winter and shorter daylight hours

-circannul rhythm subject to a yearly cycle. Can also be classed as a circadian rhythm due to disruption of sleep-wake cycle

-melatonin = implicated cause of SAD

-Seasonal affective disorder is an example of the influence of endogenous pacemakers on the circadian sleep-wake cycle. SAD is an infradian disorder caused by disruption to the sleep-wake cycle, and commonly occurs in the winter. Longer nights means that more melatonin is secreted from the pituitary gland, via the endocrine system, which changes the production of melatonin, leading to feelings of loneliness and depression.

111
Q

ultradian rhythms (2)

A

-last less than 24 hours like the sleep cycle

-sleep has 5 stages that occur throughout the night. Vary in length depending on age

-broadly speaking the complete cycle lengthens with age to 90 minutes

112
Q

Dement and Kleitman (1957): –> SLEEP WAKE CYCLE (ULTRADIAN RHYTHMS)

A

Aim = investigate brain activity change throughout night time sleep

Method = 9 Participants (7 male and 2 female) were asked to report to the lab at bedtime where they were connected to an EEG. EEG took measurements throughout their time asleep all night. Participants were asked not to drink caffeniated drinks the day before their sleep was investigated

Findings = everyone had periods of REM everynight. Higher incidents of dream recall when ppts were awakened during REM periods of sleep. If awake at other periods then few reports of dreaming. REM varied according to dream type and mirrored rapid eye movements

Conclusion = evidence to support stages of sleep. REM in stage 5 –> brain activity vairies on how vivid dreams are

113
Q

stage 1 of sleep wake cycle

A

One

Light sleep (length in each stage varies between 5 and 15 mins)

(4-5%) -> more rhythmic (alpha waves) + theta waves

-occasional muscle twitching

-muscle activity slows

114
Q

stage 2 of sleep wake cycle

A

Two

Light sleep

(45-55%) -> brain does less complicated tasks

-slight decrease in body temperature

-heart rate slows

115
Q

stage 3 of sleep wake cycle

A

Deep sleep (body makes repairs)

(4-6%) -> brain begins to generate slow delta waves

116
Q

stage 4 of sleep wake cycle

A

Very deep sleep

(12-55%) -> delta waves which are slower + greater amplitude

-rhythmic breathing

-limited muscle activity

117
Q

stage 5 of sleep wake cycle (REM)

A

15mins initially, lengthening throughout the night (less time spent in other stages). Brain waves speed up

(20-25%) -> brain activity speeds up (dreaming)

-rapid eye movement

-breathing = rapid and shallow

-muscles relax

-heart rate increases

118
Q

Strengths of infradian rhythms

A

-Research support + evolutionary basis –> McClinktock studied 29 women with a history of irregular periods -> conducted a study to see if there are external influences regulating the menstrual cycle -> they got a number of women who were ovulating or about to ovulate to wear a pad under their arms to absorb sweat and then gave other women to sniff. –> When ppts inhaled secretions from women who were about to ovulate, their menstrual cycles became shorter and secretions from after ovulation caused longer menstrual cycles. 68% women experienced changes in cycle

-Practical applications in treatment –> Knowledge of infradian rhythm that influences SAD –> light box stimulates strong light in morning and evening. Relieve symptoms in up to 60% of individuals, But placebo effecr if 30% using sham-negative ion generator. HOWEVER, doubts of effects of influence on chemical phototherapy

119
Q

limitations of infradian rhythms

A

-Controversy of evidence for influence of pheromones in the cycle –> much of the studies are derived from animal studies. For example, the role of sea urchins in releasing pheromones into the surroudings will eject their sex cells. But research into human behaviour remains speculative and inconclusive. Animal studies have different physiologies so cannot be generalised

-methodological limitations -Menstrual synchronisation is not always present in all-female samples = For example, Trevathan et al (1993) noted that he had found no evidence of menstrual synchronisation in the all-female participants used, which suggests that there are external (extraneous) variables which may affect the timing and duration of their menstrual cycles. McClintock et al. did not control for such extraneous factors e.g. smoking, physical activity and alcohol consumption. Therefore, this raises doubts about the strength of the influence of pheromones, as an exogenous zeitgeber which can entrain infradian rhythms.

120
Q

strengths of ultradian rhythms

A

-supporting research into distinct stages of sleep cycle (valid and replicable) –> Dement and Kleitman

-Many studies into the sleep cycle have been conducted in controlled lab settings = high internal validity = standardized procedure

-An interesting case study indicates the flexibility of ultradian rhythms. Randy Gardener remained awake for 264 hours. While he experienced numerous problems such as blurred vision and disorganised speech, he coped rather well with the massive sleep loss. After this experience, Randy slept for just 15 hours and over several nights he recovered only 25% of his lost sleep. Interestingly, he recovered 70% of Stage 4 sleep, 50% of his REM sleep, and very little of the other stages. These results highlight the large degree of flexibility in terms of the different stages within the sleep cycle and the variable nature of this ultradian rhythm.

121
Q

define circadian rhythm

A

-Circadian rhythm –> biological rhythms that occur over a 24hr cycle

122
Q

define biological rhythm

A

-Biological rhythm –> patterns of changes in body activity over cyclical periods

123
Q

define ultradian rhythm

A

-Ultradian rhythm –> biological rhythms that occur more than one cycle in 24hrs

124
Q

define infradian rhythm

A

-Infradian rhythm –> Biological rhythms that are longer than 24hrs but shorter than 1 year

125
Q

define endogenous pacemakers

A

-Endogenous pacemakers –> internal body clocks that regulate our biological rhythms –> e.g sleep-wake cycle

126
Q

define exogenous zietbergers

A

-Exogenous zeitgebers –> external cues that influence our biological rhythms —> e.g influence of light on sleep wake

127
Q

endogenous pacemakers and the sleep-wake cycle

A

-SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus)

-The SCN is a tiny bundle of nerves located in the hypothalamus in each hemisphere of the brain

-It is one of the primary endogenous pacemakers in mammals and is influential in maintaining circadian rhythms such as the sleep-wake cycle

-nerve fibres connected to the eye cross in an area called the optic chiasm on their way to the visual area of the cerebral cortex

-SCN lies just above the optic chiasm and recieves information about light directly from this chiasm and continues even when our eyes are closed

-This enables the biological clock to adjust to changing patterns of daylight even whilst we are asleep.

128
Q

animals studies and the SCN

A

-De Coursey et al (2000) –> they destroyed SCN connections in the brain of 30 chipmuncks who were then returned to their natural habitat and observed for 80 days. The sleep-wake cycle of chipmunks disappeared and by the end a significant proportional of them had been killed by predators (presumably bc they were awake and vulnerable to attack when they should have been asleep

-Ralph et al (1990) –> bred “mutant” hamsters with a 20hr sleep-wake cycle. When SCN cells from the foetal tissue of mutant hamsters were transplanted into the brains of normal hamsters cycles of 2nd group defaulted to 20 hrs. Importance of SCN in establishing sleep-wake cycle

129
Q

sleep-wake

A

Low levels of light –> optic nerve (melanopsin carries signals to SCN) –> axon pathway to pineal gland –> melatonin released –> induced sleep

130
Q

pineal gland and melatonin

A

-SCN passes information on day length and light that it recieves to the pineal gland.

-Pineal gland is a pea-like structure in the brain just behind the hypothalamus.

-During night the pineal gland increases the production of melatonin which induces sleep

-melatonin has been suggested as a causal factor in SAD (seasonal affective disorder)

131
Q

exogenous zeitgebers

A

Exogenous zeitgebers are external factors in the environment that reset our biological clocks through a process known as entrainment. Without external cues the free running biologicsl clock controls the sleep-wake cycle, This was seen by Siffre. This shows that the sleep-wake cycle is determined by an interaction of endogenous (internal) and exogenous (external) factors

132
Q

light

A

Light –> key zeitberger in humans. Can reset the body’s main endogenous pacemaker (SCN) so plays a role in the maintenance of the sleep-wake cycle. Light can also have indirect influence on key processes in the body that control such functions as hormone secretion and blood circulation

133
Q

campbell and murphey

A

Campbell and Murphy (1998) -> demonstrated that light may be detcted by skin receptor sites on the body even when the same information is not received by the eyes

-15ppts were woken at various times and a light pad was shone on the back of their knees

-deivation in ppts sleep-wake up to 3hrs

-suggeste that light is a powerful exogenpus zeitgeber that need not necessarily rely on the eyes

134
Q

use your knowledge of endogenous pacemarkers and exogenous zeitgebers

A

-sleep-wake cycle = disrupted
-night/lack of sleep = exogenous zeitgeber
-production of melatonin = more tried = more tense and irritable
-out of sync with external cues
-endogeous pacemaker = SCN which regulates sleep-wake cycle

135
Q

using ur knowledge of research into exogenous zeitgbers discuss what julia ciuld do to encourgfae her baby to sleep more at night

A

AO1 –> external cues, light, affect sleep-wake cycle, role of cortisol and melatonin, receptors in SCN are sensitive to levels of light, disrupt natural sleep pattern

AO2 –> dark room at sunset and bright/noisy room during the day

AO3 –> Limitations = exogenous zeitgebers are overstated.
Strengths = research support (campbell and murphy) -> light is important in encouraging regular circadian rhythm

136
Q

social cues

A

-As new parents know only too well, babies are rarely in the same sleep-wake cycle as the rest of the family.

-in human infants the sleep/wake cycle is apparently random. Circadian rhythms begin around 6 weeks and by 16 weeks most babies are entrained. The schedules imposed by parents will be a key influence including mealtimes and bedtimes

-Research suggests that adapting to local times for eating and sleeping (rather than depending on ones own feelings of hunger and fatigue) is an effective way of entraining circadian rhythms and beating jet lag

137
Q

strengths of endogenous and exogenous

A

-Animal studies into the role of SCN –> SCN role in sleep-wake cycle can be demonstrated with animals through lesion studies and cellular implantation. DeCoursay destroyed SCN connections in 30 chipuminks etc. Ralph et al and mutant hamsters etc. Manipulation of SCN in controlled conditions so results can be replicated and cause-effect relationship can be proven. However, ethical issues and issues in generalising to humans who have more complex social cues/sleep-wake cycles

-Practical research applications (light exposure to avoid jet lag) –> Jet lag can be a severe condition causing sleep, appetite and mood disturbance. By understanding role of exogenous zeitgebers we can decrease impacts of jetlag on sleep-wake cycle. Brugess found that exposure to bright light following east-west flight decreased the time needed to readjust to local time on arrival. 3 groups of volunteers were exposued to either bright light, intermittent bright light or dim light, Bright light = circadian rhythm shifted 2.1 hrs, 1.5 for intertmittent and 0.6 for dim light

138
Q

limitations of endogenous and exogenous

A

-Reductionism (role of peripheral oscillators) –> too simplistic to suggest that the SCN is the only endogenous pacemaker responsible for regulating sleep-wake cycle. Research demonstrated that there are many peripheral oscillators found in many other organs of the body e.g skin that function in combination with SCN and can work individually e.g Campbell and Murphy, suggesting that light does not need to enter the eyes to have effect on sleep-wake cycle. However, there are methodological limitations - doesn’t account for other exogenous zeitgbers

-Role of exogenous zeitgebers may be overstated –> evidence that although external environmental cues may vary, some individuals pacemakers are set to withstand influence. Case study from Miles (1977) of young man blind from birth with a circadian rhythm of 24.9hrs whose sleep-wake cycle could not be adjusted regardless to changes of social cues. He required medication to allow him to sleep and wake up everyday. However, psychologists may argue that this is an exceptional circumstance and for most ppl there is an interacition between our internal pacemaker and exogenous zeitgebers.

-issues with case study evidence to support role of endogenous pacemakers –> e.g Siffre. –> cannot generalise results to whole populations of people

139
Q

fMRI

A

Measures brain activity while task is being performed using MRI. Detect regions of the brain that are rich in oxygen and are active

High spatial resolution (location of brain) => by the mm

Low temporal resolution (5 second lag)

Show localised brain activity

140
Q

EEG

A

Measure electrical activity within the brain via electrodes that are fixed to an individuals scalp using a skull cap. Represents brainwave patterns generated by action of millions of neurons

Low spatial resolution (no location)

High temporal resolution (timing of neural activity)

Brain activity indicates neurological abnormalites e.g epilepsy

141
Q

ERP

A

Brains electrophysiological response to a specific sensory, cognitive or motor event. Can be isolated through statistical analysis of EEG data. Filter all extraneous brain activity not related to specific stimulus

Poor spatial resolution

Good temporal resolution

Measure brainwave triggered by particular events using statistical averaging (test cognition)

142
Q

post-morterm

A

Brain is analysed after death to determine whether certain observed behaviours during patients lifetime can be linked to abnormality in the brain. Compare with neurotypical brain

High spatial resolution (deep anatomical understanding of brain abnormality)

Low temporal resolution

Assess rare disorder or neurological deficet (GID or schizophrenia)

143
Q

difference between EEG and ERP

A

EEG is a recording of general brain activity whereas ERP is a recording of brain activity to a specific stimulus presented to participants

144
Q

strengths of FMRI

A

non-invasive unlike a PET scan. FMRI doesn’t rely on the use of radiation as is virtually risk free

-high spatial resolution -> clear picture of how brain activity is localised

145
Q

limitations of FMRI

A

Limitations of FMRI –> expensive compared to other neuroimaging techniques

-not suitable for everyone -> person must lie extremely still

-poor temporal resolution

146
Q

strengths of EEG

A

valuable in the diagnosis of conditions such as epilepsy (practical applications)

-contributed understanding to stages involved in sleep (ultradian rhythms)

-high temporal resolution -> easy to detect even the smallest issues

147
Q

limitations of EEG

A

not useful in pinpointing the exact source of neural activity and cannot distinguish between adjacent locations

148
Q

strengths of ERP

A

more specific = increased validity (more exact measurement of neural processes)

-excellent temporal resolution (widespread use in cognitive functions)

-practical application -> p300 component is involved in the working memory

149
Q

limitations of ERP

A

lack of standardization in ERP methodology in different research findings so is difficult to confirm

-extraneous variables are not completely eliminated

150
Q

strength of post-morterm

A

vital in providing a foundation of early understanding of key processes in the brain e.g Broca’s area

-improves medical knowledge + generate hypothese for further study

151
Q

limitations of post morterm

A

causation is an issue -> observed damage may not be linked to the defect under review

-ethical issues -> no consent -> Patient HM never provided his consent

152
Q

reflex arc

A

stimulus -> sense organs in PNS -> sensory neuron –> CNS –> relay neuron –> motor neuron –> effector

153
Q

synaptic transmission

A

Axon –> synaptic terminal –> neurotransmitter –> synapse –> receptor site –> post synaptic neuron -> electrical impulse

154
Q

limitations of ultradian rhythms

A

-studies lack ecological validity -> subject to specific levels of control = false conclusions being drawn

  • this study was carried out in a controlled lab setting, which meant that the differences in the sleep patterns could not be attributed to situational factors, but only to biological differences between participants. While this study provide convincing support for the role of innate biological factors and ultradian rhythms, psychologists should examine other situational factors that may also play a role.

-Individual Differences: The problem with studying sleep cycles is the differences observed in people, which make investigating patterns difficult. Tucker et al. (2007) found significant differences between participants in terms of the duration of each stage, particularly stages 3 and 4 (just before REM sleep). This demonstrates that there may be innate individual differences in ultradian rhythms, which means that it is worth focusing on these differences during investigations into sleep cycles.

155
Q

action potential

A

when a neuron is at rest the inside of the neuron is negative relative to the outside
Different concentrations of ions on each membrane side

When a neuron is activated by a stimulus the inside of the cell becomes positevly charged for a short time creating the electrical impulse

156
Q

ultradian vs circadian

A

circadian = lasts once within 24hr period e.g sleep-wake cycle

ultradian = repeated throughout 24hr cycle = sleep stages or appetite

157
Q

two regions of the brain involved in the fight or flight response

A

pituitary gland
hypothalamus

158
Q

limitations of ultradian rhythms

A

Individual Differences: The problem with studying sleep cycles is the differences observed in people, which make investigating patterns difficult. Tucker et al. (2007) found significant differences between participants in terms of the duration of each stage, particularly stages 3 and 4 (just before REM sleep). This demonstrates that there may be innate individual differences in ultradian rhythms, which means that it is worth focusing on these differences during investigations into sleep cycles

Additionally, the way in which such research is conducted may tell us little about ultradian rhythms in humans. When investigating sleep patterns, participants must be subjected to a specific level of control and be attached to monitors that measure such rhythms. This may be invasive for the participant, leading them to sleep in a way that does not represent their ordinary sleep cycle. This makes investigating ultradian rhythms, such as the sleep cycle, extremely difficult as their lack of ecological validity could lead to false conclusions being drawn.

159
Q

recieving information from areas in the brain

A

motor cortex -> motor neurons nerve impulses
somatosensory –> sensory neurons
auditory cortex –> nerve impulses from receptors in the ear (not contralateral)
brocas –> produce language (left hemisphere only)
wernickes –> understand language (left hemisphere only)

160
Q

no random allocation =

A

cannot control particiapnt variables

161
Q

disruption of biological rhythm =

A

lack of sychronization
increased anxiety
reduced alterness

162
Q

research into shift work

A

Bovin et al

163
Q

research into jet lag

A

Burgress et al

164
Q

treatment jet lag

A

Treatments for jet lag e.g. melatonin, would be
creditable as long as there is an explicit link to biological rhythms e.g. via the role of
melatonin in biological clocks

165
Q

shift work

A

implications of findings for our understanding of the
mechanisms of the effects of disruption, and application of findings to reduce the
impact of disruption e.g. by changes to shift work patterns

166
Q

endogenous pacemaker support

A

. There are many studies supporting a role for EPs in the control of
biological rhythms, and how they interact with exogenous zeitgebers; these include
Siffre’s original isolation study and subsequent similar work, experiments on
infradian rhythms, and even research on non-human animals (eg hamsters) and
plants could be made directly relevant to this question.

167
Q

discuss consequences to disrupting biologu rhythms (16 marker)

A

An effective route to discussion/evaluation marks would be methodological
evaluation of research and field studies as relevant to the consequences. A second
route would be commentary on the implications of findings eg what modifications to
shift work have been shown to alleviate its effects? Does our knowledge of the
mechanisms behind jet lag suggest possible ways of minimising its effects?
Accurate explanations of why/how disrupting biological rhythms has such effects ie
the roles of endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers, would qualify as
extended commentary.
Examiners should be sensitive to depth / breadth trade-offs in answers that cover
several consequences or examples of disruption.
Further relevant discussion points might broader approaches eg biological, general
issues related the research eg reductionism; ethical issues; applications of
psychological research eg to the alteration of shift work patterns.

168
Q

endogenous vs exogenous

A

internal vs external

body clocks vs cues

169
Q

sick, shaky hands, hardly speak

A

adrenaline = muscle tension
sick = inhibit digestion
shaky hands = increased blood flow

170
Q

nerve impulses to brain

A

sensory neuron

171
Q

structure and function of neurons

A
  • Neurons enable communication within the nervous system
  • the cell body (soma) contains the genetic material
  • branch-like dendrites extend from the cell body (often with dendritic spines)
  • dendrites carry functional information towards the cell body
  • dendrites can receive information from other neurons
  • axons carry messages away from the cell body
  • axons can be myelinated to increase speed of nerve transmission (saltatory conduction between
    nodes of Ranvier)
  • terminal boutons are at the end of axons, these make synaptic connections with other cells
  • axon terminals contain neurotransmitters.
172
Q

IPSP

A

Zapurpain mimics the effect of inhibitory neurotransmitters, stimulation of postsynaptic receptors by an
inhibitory neurotransmitter result in inhibition (hyperpolarisation) of the postsynaptic membrane
* when an inhibitory neurotransmitter binds to the post-synaptic receptors it makes the post-synaptic cell
less likely to fire (IPSP)
* Summation – if inhibitory inputs are higher than excitatory they can cancel out excitation and inhibit an
action potential occurring/Zapurpain would decrease the overall activity
* Zapurpain would make the post-synaptic cell less likely to fire
* reducing brain activity may lead to reduced pain

173
Q

similarity between FMRI and ERP

A
  • fMRIs and ERPs are both non-invasive and do not use radiation (risk free)
  • fMRIs and ERPs both measure brain activity linked to events/tasks.
174
Q

Which method of studying the brain would most accurately identify specific brain areas
activated during a cognitive task?

A

FMRI

175
Q

differences ERP and FMRI

A

fMRIs have poor temporal resolution whereas ERPs have good temporal resolution
* fMRIs have good spatial resolution whereas ERPs have poor spatial resolution
* fMRIs provide indirect measure of neural activity whereas ERPs offer a direct measure of neural
activity
* different methodology - fMRIs work by measuring changes in blood oxygenation as a measure of
neural activity whereas ERPs measure electrical activity via electrodes to detect brainwaves triggered
by certain events
* fMRIs are more expensive than ERPs.

176
Q

role of endocrine system

A
  • the endocrine system helps to regulate the activity of cells and organs in the body
  • the endocrine system communicates chemical messages to the organs of the body
177
Q

damage to Broca’s areas

A

less fluency in speaking
speech aphasia
difficulties in formulating sentences

178
Q

stroke on LEFT hemisphere affected motor cortex

A

mobility issues
paralysis on right side of body since left hemisphere controls right side

179
Q

difference between autonomic + somatic nervous system

A

autonomic = involvuntary
somatic = voluntary = conscious control

180
Q

why can information only travel down the synapse in one direction

A

the synaptic vesicles containing the neurotransmitter are only present on/released from the
presynaptic membrane
 the receptors for the neurotransmitters are only present on the postsynaptic membrane
 it is the binding of the neurotransmitter to the receptor which enables the signal/information to be
passed/transmitted on (to the next neuron).
 Diffusion of the neurotransmitters mean they can only go from high to low concentration, so can only
travel from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic membrane.

Aqa a level psychology (11 decks)

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