Memory Flashcards

Question

patient HM

Answer 1

lost memory due to removal of hippocampus (experienced loss of conscious memories and retrograde amnesia)

Answer 2

The multi store of memory is a structural model of memory. It is comprised of 3 unitary stores (STM, LTM, SR). Information passes from store to store in a linear way. Environmental information arrives via your sensory register. If attention is not paid then information will decay rapidly. Paying attention causes the transference of information to STM. The original model suggests rehearsing information in STM causes it to transfer to your LTM.

Answer 3

-they interfere with eachother and performance is reduced -the phonological and visual sketchpad are separate systems within the working model and cannot operate at the same time

Answer 4

1) Central Executive --> component of the working memory model co-ordinates the activities of the three subsystems in memory. Allocates processing resources to those activities. 2) Episodic buffer --> component of the WMM that brings together material from the other subsystems into a single memory rather than separate strands. Provides a bridge between working memory and LTM. 3) Visuospatial sketchpad --> processes visual and spatial (location) information in a mental space often called the inner eye 4) Phonological loop --> processes information in terms of sound. Included both written and spoken material. Divided into the phonological store and acoustic store 5) Articulatory loop --> allows maintenance rehearsal (repeating words or sounds) Phonological store --> stores the words you hear

Answer 5

limited processing capacity + process and monitors incoming data/makes decision

Answer 6

2 seconds --> deals with auditory information and presents order of information

Answer 7

limited capacity (3 or 4 objects) --> stores information when required

Answer 8

temporary store of information (limited capacity – 4 chunks)

Answer 9

-demonstrated the existence of a visuo-spatial pad by using a dual task paradigm. Asked participants to do 2 tasks that would utilise the visuo-spatial sketch pad Findings --> if one store is used for both tasks then performance is poorer than when completed separately. If tasks require difference stores than performance would be unaffected

Answer 10

-High internal validity --> model was developed based on evidence from lab experiments. Confounding variables controlled to produce reliable results. Has ability to be replicated -Supporting evidence --> Baddeley and Hitch. Conducted an experiment involving a repeated list of numbers. Concluded these results suggested verbal reasoning using the central executive. -Studies of dual task information --> , where each participant must undertake a visual and verbal task simultaneously, shows decreased performance for such tasks and so supports the idea that the central executive has a very limited processing capacity (as predicted by the WMM) and that the slave systems are in competition with each other for these tasks and resources. -Neuroscanning evidence --> such as that provided by Braver et al, has demonstrated a positive correlation between an increasing cognitive load processed by the central executive (as marked by increasing task difficulty) and increasing levels of activation in the prefrontal cortex. This supports the idea that the central executive has the role of allocating tasks to slave systems and has a limited processing capacity, as reflected by the increased brain activation levels, thus suggesting that the WMM is accurate in its mechanism of the central executive.

Answer 11

-Low ecological validity --> lab experiment lacks practical applications. -Too simplistic and vague --> the WMM has been critised for being too simplistic and vague, unclear what the central executive is or its true role in attention

Answer 12

recognition recall reminder/remembrance

Answer 13

multi store model -he had his hippocampus removed

Answer 14

STM = Peterson LTM = Bahrick

Answer 15

true (linear)

Answer 16

STM (Baddely and Hitch)

Answer 17

STM was damaged

Answer 18

Shallice and Warrington studied KF a man whose brain had been injured in a motorcycle accident. KF's LTM functioned normally but his STM was severely impaired. 1-2 chunks only. Further investigation showed that KF forgot letters and digits much faster when he received them auditorily than visually. KF also had normal STM span for meaningful sounds. ---> KF = working memory model (separate slave stores)

Answer 19

-The WMM shows that the MSM is an over-simplified explanation of memory. There is more than one type of short-term store and the situation is the same with LTM. Research indicates the existence of several types -The main sub-division of the LTM is into explicit and implicit

Answer 20

-personal recollections -LTM store for personal events. It involves memories of when events occurred and of the people, objects, places and behaviours involved -conscious and time stamped

Answer 21

-general knowledge -LTM store for our knowledge o the world. Includes facts and our knowledge of what worlds and concepts mean -not time stamped and conscious

Answer 22

knowing how -LTM store for our knowledge of how to do things -includes our memories of learned skills -not conscious and not time stamped

Answer 23

Tulving et alt

Answer 24

episodic --> ask questions about events from earlier semantic --> ask questions about knowledge of the world e.g who composed a specific piece of music

Answer 25

-procedural LTM was intact -cannot form new memories as episodic LTM was damaged so thus cannot remember playing the same piece of music the previous time

Answer 26

Strength = real life applications = Clive wearing

Answer 27

Peterson et al (different neurological bases)

Answer 28

Patient HM and Clive wearing produced clinical evidence in which both their episodic memory was severely impaired but for different reasons (amnesia). They couldn’t recall memories from the past but semantic memories were unaffected. Supports Tulving's view that there are different memory stores in LTM in different parts of the brain -Baddedly

Answer 29

Brain scan studies show different types of memory are stored in different parts of the brain e.g tulving et al got participants to perform memory tests while brains were scanned using PET scanner. E.g episodic and semantic memory in prefrontal cortex (right vs left) -Hodges and Patterson --> found that some people with Alizhimer's could form new episodic memories but not semantic memories

Answer 30

Belleville et al (2006) demonstrated that episodic memories could be improved in older people who has mild cognitive impairment. Trained participants performed better in a test of episodic memory after training than control group -types of LTM enabled specific treatments to be developed

Answer 31

could not recall stroking a dog but he understood the concept and meaning of a dog

Answer 32

Both Clive wearing and patient HM had procedural memories for example, they both knew how to tie their shoelaces, walk, speak and wearing could play the piano but lost their semantic/episodic memories LTM memory is more complex than a unitary store

Answer 33

Frontal lobe --> stores semantic and episodic memories Motor cortex --> storing procedural memories Prefrontal cortex --> storage of short term memories Temporal lobe --> storage of LT semantic and episodic memories Amygdala --> formation of new emotional memories Hippocampus --> formation of new LT semantic and episodic memories Cerebellum --> important role in storage of procedural memories

Answer 34

-knowledge of learned skills -e.g how to ride a bike -not conscious and not time stamped

Answer 35

-strength = research evidence e.g clive wearing -highlights separate memory stores

Answer 36

Interference is one explanation for forgetting (where the memory for one thing disrupts the recall of another) -Forgetting/distortion of memory due to interference (two pieces of information conflict w eachother)

Answer 37

proactive interference retroactive interference

Answer 38

-old memory is remembered but not new memory -old memories affect the ability to remember new memories -information learnt interferes with information that is new

Answer 39

-new memory is remembered but not old memory -new information interferes with the retrieval of old information -e,g cant remember names from last year but can remember from this year

Answer 40

-first to identify retroactive interference -gave ppts nonsense syllables to learn for 6 mins and recall lists -performance was less good if ppts were given an intervening task between initial learning and recall -interfering task produced as a later task was affected by previous learnings

Answer 41

-effect of proactive interference on LTM -experiment resembles Peterson and Peterson study (meaningless syllables) -participants typically remembered trigrams presented irrespective of interval length -probability of recall decreased from 80 when there was no list to 20 following 20 lists -proactive interference occurred as memory from earlier constants interfered LTM for new consonants

Answer 42

-effects of similarity on interference -studied retroactive interference by changing similarity between two sets of materials -participants had to learn a list of 10 new words until they could 100% remember it. They then learned a new list -6 groups with categories e.g synonyms/antonyms -When participants recalled original lists of words their performance depended on nature of 2nd list -most similar material produced the worst recall

Answer 43

-lab experiments + consistent results -research evidence -Baddely and Hitch --> in a group of rugby players who had to recall their last game and the number of games they’d played that season (which would be different for each player), the number of games they’d played since was more important than the total time they’d been playing for. This can be explained in terms of interference, where the more games each player had played, the more likely the memories of these newer games would interfere or block the recall of older games i.e. retroactive interference.

Answer 44

-artificial stimulus --> low mundane realism + lacks personal meaning - that they are often conducted in very short spaces of time, with participants recalling their words 1 or 2 hours after they have learnt them. This does not reflect the normal passage of time in everyday life, where we often find that several days pass until we need to recall such information e.g. in the case of an exam. Therefore, this suggests that interference is unlikely to be a valid explanation for forgetting from the LTM.

Answer 45

-context dependent forgetting -state dependent forgetting -trace decay -encoding specificity principle -baddeley and godden -carter and cassaday

Answer 46

-context --> external environmental cues -state --> internal cues

Answer 47

-improved recall of specific episodes of information when contextual cues relating to the environment are the same during encoding and retrieval -more likely to remember something learned if in the same environment

Answer 48

-forgetting which occurs because the emotional or physical state of recall is different to that of the time of learning

Answer 49

-learned memories in our brain eventually fade overtime if not rehearsed or retrieved (automatic function) -suggests limited duration of the STM

Answer 50

Encoding specificity principle --> the greater the similarity between the encoding event and the retrieval event, the greater the likelihood of recalling original memories

Answer 51

-asked deep sea divers to learn a list of words either underwater or on land and then were asked to recall words -4 conditions --> underwater learning, land learning, recall in same context, recall in opposite context Findings: -accurate recall was 40% lower than in non-matching conditions because encoding event and retrieval event were not similar so reduced likelihood of reducing learnt information -correlation between environment and effectiveness of retrieval

Answer 52

-Looked at the effect of anti-histamines on participants -made participants slightly drowsy --> created an internal physiological state different from normal state of being awake and alert -participants had to learn a list of words and passages of prose and then recall information in 4 conditions Group 1 --> learning w drug, recall w drug Group 2 --> learning without drug, recall without drug Group 3 --> learning w drug, recall without drug Group 4 --> learning without drug, recall w drug Findings: -in the conditions where there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall, performance on memory test was significantly worse as physiological state was affected -when cues are absent e.g drowsy then there is more forgetting -hard to control for extraneous variables as drowsiness could not be to the drug but due to fatigue etc

Answer 53

-research evidence to support context dependent forgetting (Baddeley and Godden) -research evidence to support for state dependent forgetting (Carter and Cassaday)

Answer 54

-very little direct support for decay theory as an explanation for loss of information from STM to LTM. Decay theory is more or less impossible to test. If you prevent rehearsal there will be interference. Therefore not enough scientific evidence to draw valid conclusions -studies lack ecological validity e.g Baddley and Godden argued that it is difficult to find polar conditions in real life; retrieval failure is associated with more abnormal conditions -Context isnt very strong in real life

Answer 55

-Define EWT and anxiety -scenario -positive effect on recall -research evidence = yuille and cutshall

Answer 56

-Eye witness testimony --> ability of people to remember the details of events such as accidents and crimes which they themselves have observed. Accuracy is affected by misleading information, leading questions and anxiety -Eye witness testimony uses --> recorded in a police statement, verbal testimony to be used in court of law

Answer 57

-unpleasant emotional state where we fear that something bad is about to happen. Stress/fear accompanied by physiological factors such as increased heart rate

Answer 58

the superior recognition and recall of central, emotion-arousing details in a traumatic event as shown in previous research on emotion and memory. When you can focus on a traumatic event that has happened and remember the details but miss other information around

Answer 59

-Aim --> effect of weapons (which create anxiety) on accuracy of recall of the witness. More focus on weapon = less recall Procedure --> IV = type of argument (high or low anxiety condition) DV = accuracy of recall -Participants were led to believe they were going to take part in a lab study. Participants heard and argument in the next room and a man walked out with a pen and greasy knife. Another argument had participants hearing glass breaking and man walked out holding paper knife covered in fake blood -Results --> participants later had to pick out a picture of the man from a set of 50 photos. 49% could identify the man. 33% of participants had said they had seen a man holding bloody knife Conclusion --> overall anxiety has a negative effect of recall because tunnel theory of memory...

Answer 60

-Aim --> stress of crime / anxiety and effect on physiological arousal. Fight or flight response on recall and memory cues Procedure --> study of real life shooting in shop in Vancouver IV = time of report DV = number of details recorded into the account and stress rating -shop owner shot a thief dead. 21 witnesses. 13 agreed to take part in study and interviews. Interview 4-5 months after accident Witnesses also had to rate stress levels on 7 point scale -Results --> witnesses were accurate in their accounts and their was little change in accuracy after 5 months though some things were lost. 88% when stressed, 75% for less stressed group Conclusion --> more stressed you are the more likely you are to recall and remember things

Answer 61

Yerkes and Dodson (1908): -believe the relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an inverted u

Answer 62

Deffenbacher applied the Yerkes-Dodson law to EWT: -lower levels of anxiety = produce lower levels of recall accuracy -after optimal levels are reached and witness continues to experience high levels of stress, the accuracy EWT decreases

Answer 63

-Research support + positive effects which adds credibility to eyewitness testimony

Answer 64

-Weapon focus may not be relevant --> Potentially Johnson and Scott's study may be a test or surprise rather than anxiety. Ppts may focus on weapon bc they don’t expect it. Similar research has found that when in that crime situation ppts had poor EWT due to focusing on handheld items including rubber chicken as much as they did a gun -Inverted-u explanation is too simplistic --> only assumes that one factor it linked to poor performance (physical arousal) rather than other factors. Anxiety is very difficult to define and measure accurately as it has many elements. Therefore, a more complex and detailed explanation for performance link to physiological arousal should be developed as level of performance is not only affected by one thing -Field studies sometimes lack control --> Yuille and Cutshall. Extraneous variables may have been responsible for the recall and is overwhelmed by other factors -Ethical issues --> Johnson and Scott experiment inflicted real psychological harm. Perhaps interviews of real incidents should be done instead.

Answer 65

-Incorrect information given to the eyewitness usually after the event (post-event). It can take many forms such as leading questions and post-event discussion between co-witnesses and/or other people

Answer 66

Leading questions --> A question which, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer e.g was the knife in the accused's left hand, suggesting the answer is in the left hand

Answer 67

Response-bias explanation --> suggests that the wording of the question has no real effect on the participant's memories but just influences how they decide to answer

Answer 68

Substitution explanation --> the wording of a leading question actually changes the participants memory

Answer 69

-Aim = accuracy of memory after witnessing a car accident in particular to see if leading questions distorted the accuracy of eyewitness's immediate recall -Procedure --> 45 college students were shown 7 films of different traffic accidents. After each film participants were given a questionnaire which asked them to describe the accident and then answer specific questions about it. "How fast were the cars going when they ___ eachother".5 groups in total with different verbs --> smashed, collided, bumped, hit, contacted -Mean speed estimate was calculated for each group: Results: smashed = 40.8 mph Collided = 39.3 mph Bumped = 34.0 mph Hit = 38.1 mph Contacted = 31.8 mph DV = questionnaire but limitation is that it can be subjective and thus not generalisable Conclusions = EWT is unreliable

Answer 70

-Aim = to see if indeed memory was altered by misleading post-event information -Procedure = new set of participants divided into 3 groups and shown a film of a car accident lasting one minute. Group 1 was given verb smashed, group 2 = hit, group 3 control group not having question abt speed of car. The participants returned one week later and were asked 10 questions with the critical question "Did you see any broken glass". -Results = participants gave higher speed estimates in the smashed condition and were more likely to think they saw broken glass for smashed condition Smashed = 16 yes 34 = no Hit = 7 yes 43 = no Control = 6 yes 44 = no

Answer 71

Strength: -Research = real life applications --> improve the way legal systems work, police officers need to be more careful in the way the phrase information

Answer 72

-Research is lab based so lacks ecological validity = cannot be generalisable to everyday life = experiment 1 for Loftus and Palmer. Participants lack physiological arousal brought be a real life traumatic situation -Real life applications show that EWT can be unreliable (Ryan Ferugson case) - The artificial tasks and stimuli used by both Loftus and Palmer, alongside Gabbert, reduces the ecological validity of the findings and the mundane realism of the methodology. For example, the film clips of the car crashes do not expose participants to the anxiety of experiencing a real-life car crash. This anxiety may either have a negative (Johnson and Scott) or positive (Yuille and Cutshall) effect on the accuracy of EWT, thus biasing the findings.

Answer 73

-Fisher and Geiselman et al (2003) developed the cognitive interview which aimed to reduce the impact of misleading information and poor interview technique on eyewitness accounts -Research identified that leading questions can affect the way in which participants recall and EWT. Participants who are guided towards an answer which indicate that something occurred are more likely to believe they saw something which didnt happen -The use of leading questions can be highly influential and is something that can be controlled -Cognitive interview aims to reduce errors in accuracy with EWT

Answer 74

role of misleading information and leading questions

Answer 75

1) Report everything --> witnesses are encouraged to include every single detail of the event even if it seems irrelevant or the witness is not confident about it --> this helps trigger important memories/cues to reinstate information 2) Reinstate the context --> Witnesses should return to original crime scene in their mind and imagine the environment --> related to context dependent forgetting 3) Reverse the order --> events should be recalled in a different chronological order for the original sequence --> this prevents people reporting their expectation of how the event might have happened (prevents dishonesty) 4) Recall from a changed perspective --> Witnesses should recall the incident from other peoples perspectives --> disrupts expectations and schema or recall

Answer 76

-focus on interactions between interviewer and interviewee (social dynamics) -Involved reducing EWT/anxiety, minimizing distractions, asking open ended questions, asking questions slowly

Answer 77

-accurate and has real life applications --> Fisher found that witnesses reported greater detail in accounts of crime when American detectives used this technique as it is more structured and thorough -supporting evidence --> Kohnken et al conducted a meta analysis to show the enhanced cognitive interview improved consistency and correct information = practical benefits which increase credibility -The entire CI need not be used to reap the benefits, as Milne and Bull (2002) suggested, where context reinstatement and report everything produced the greatest accuracy of recall of correct information as compared to any other combinations of steps. This means that even if police forces do not have enough time to train the entire force for all of the 4 steps involved in the CI, even gradual changes from the standard police interview can increase the accuracy and reliability of eyewitness testimony

Answer 78

-Time consuming and long to conduct --> rapport must be published and requires specialist training of police officers. Kebbell and Wagstaff found many police offices did not use this technique in less serious crimes bc they had less time -Increase in inaccurate information --> 81% in correct information but also 61% in inaccurate information compared to standard interview. Lacks reliability and objectivity

Answer 79

declarative = consiously recall non decalarative = unconsciously recall

Answer 80

-primary acoustic store -articulatory process

Answer 81

-filter out auditory information that is not needed -store auditory information for 1-2 seconds

Answer 82

the capacity of the articulaory process is determined by how many words we can say in 2 seconds

Answer 83

procedural = non declarative episodic and semantic = declerative

Answer 84

through maintenance rehersal

Answer 85

episodic not procedural or semantic

Answer 86

co-ordinates slave systems and allocates resources limited storage

Answer 87

integrates processing of slave systems and records order of events linked to LTM

Answer 88

Tulving and Psotka’s study supports interference theory because in the free recall condition, the results showed that the more participants had to learn, the less they remembered. This is evidence of retroactive interference, where new memories interfere with similar, older memories. The study also supports cue-dependent theory because participants in the cued condition recalled more words overall than those in the free recall condition. This is evidence that external cues helped participants to recall information.

Answer 89

things that we can recall out loud

Answer 90

STM = confused with words sounding the same LTM = confused words with the same/similar meanings

Answer 91

hippocampus + temporal lobe

Answer 92

basial ganaglia + cerebellum

Answer 93

untestable + vague

Answer 94

anxiety = memory may be worse bc of arousal post-event discussion = may be less accurate bc they confuse their original memory with what other people say leading questions

Answer 95

-Squire et al found hippocampus is active during LTM suggesting STM and LTM are separate stores

Answer 96

Hodges and Patterson = studied Alzhimer patients and found that they were unable to form new semantic memories but could form episodic ones

Answer 97

-LaRooy (2005) = found that repeat interviewing increases the chance of interviewees including information given to them by the interviewer in EWT

Answer 98

visual cache = visual data inner scribe = the arrangement of objects in visual field capcity 3-4 objects inner eye

Answer 99

auditory information inner ear duration = 1-2 seconds temporal storage verbal rehersal loop

Answer 100

= behaviours can be replicated

Answer 101

avoidant children are more likely to be victims of bullying and resistant children are more likely to be the bullies themselves