Research Methods ❎ Flashcards
Co-variables
definition
Two or more measured variables in a correlation
Laboratory experiment
definition
- research method
- there is an IV, DV, and strict controls
- looks for a causal relationship
- conducted in a setting which is not the usual environment for the participant with regard to the behaviour they are performing
Field experiment
definition
- setting which is the normal environment for the participant with regard to the behaviour they are performing.
- diifcult to manipulate all variables
Natural experiment
definition
An investigation looking for a causal relationship in which the IV cannot be directly manipulated
* effect of an existing difference or change is investigated
* cannot manipulate variables - variables are naturally occuring
Standardisation
definition
The practice of keeping the procedure for each participant in a study exactly the same, to ensure that measured differences in the DV are likely to be due to the IV
Controls
definition
Ways to keep potential confounding variables constant, to ensure measured differences in the DV are likely to be due to the IV
Replication
definition
Keeping the procedure and materials exactly the same between studies
Operationalisation
definition
The practice of clearly describing a variable such that it can be measured/quantified and accurately manipulated so that the study can be replicated.
Ecological validity
Research methods
How generalisable the study’s findings are to other situations or settings.
Population validity
Research methods
How well a study’s sample represents other populations or groups.
Explain what is meant by
debriefing
Ethics: Human Participants
- participants are reminded of their ethical rights
- cover stories must be uncovered
- participants must be thanked and given contact details for future concerns
Explain what is meant by
right to withdraw
Ethics: Human Participants
participants can leave the research experiment before it starts, during the process or after the process has ended
Explain what is meant by
privacy
Ethics: Human Participants
participants privacy must not be invaded and they have control over what information is published
Explain what is meant by
confidentiality
Ethics: Human Participants
participants’ identities must not be revealed to the public
minimising harm and maximising benefits
definition
ensuring that participants are not physically or psychologically harmed by the research process
Explain what is meant by
valid consent including informed consent
Ethics: Human Participants
participants are made aware of the benefits and risks of the research, and give unambiguous consent
Explain what is meant by
lack of deception
Ethics: Human Participants
participants should be aware of all the details of the experiment; if deception is necessary, they must be debriefed afterwards
species and strain
definition
species must be least likely to become distressed;
whilst being able to fulfill the requirements of the study; endangered species must not be used
Explain what is meant by
numbers
Ethics: Non-human participants
The smallest number of animals possible should be used while being enough to achieve reliable results
Numbers
Explain what is meant by
anaesthesia, analgesia, euthanasia
Ethics: Non-human participants
- Procedures that are likely to cause pain and discomfort should be performed only on animals that have been adequately anaesthetised
- Analgesics should be used before and after such procedures to minimise pain and distress
- Animals suffering lasting pain must be euthanised
Anaesthesia, analgesia, euthanasia
deprivation and aversive stimuli
definition
- Deprivation is doing without something
- Aversive stimuli is something present that the animal doesn’t like, is afraid of or hurt by
- Researchers must ensure there is no alternative way of motivating the animal that is consistent with the aims of the experiment
- Levels of deprivation should be no greater than needed to achieve the experiment’s goals
pain and distress
definition
Any physical/psychological pain and distress must be avoided.
Any adverse effects on animals must be recognised and assessed, with immediate action taken wherever necessary
replacement
definition
Researchers should consider replacing animal experiments with videos or computer simulations
housing
definition
- Isolation and overcrowding should be avoided
- Caging should take into consideration the aspects of the animal’s natural environment that are important to its welfare and the social behaviour of the species
reward
definition
The researcher should consider the animal’s usual eating and drinking habits and metabolic requirements
Reward
laboratory experiments
features
strengths
high reliability - variables are controlled and manipulated
high internal validity - causal relationship is clear and variables are controlled
weaknesses
low ecological validity - setting is controlled
low mundane realism - setting is unlike normal environment of participants
Strengths of
field experiments
- High ecological validity - realistic setting
- Limited demand characteristics from participants
field experiments
features
strengths
high ecological validity - realistic setting
limited demand characteristics
weaknesses
low internal validity - situational variables are difficult to control
deception - participants do not know that they’re taking part in a study
low reliability - setting is not controlled
Strengths of
natural experiments
- High ecological validity because the IV is naturally occurring
- Valid representation of a person’s behaviour
Weakness of
natural experiments
- Difficult to know whether the IV caused an effect on the DV
- Low reliability - the event investigated is naturally occurring
- Low generalisability
experimental condition
definition
one or more of the situations in an experiment which represent the different levels of the IV
* compared with one another or with the control condition
2 types of self-reports
questionnaires
and interviews
4 types of questionnaires
- Likert scales: questions asking whether the participant likes or dislikes something.
- Rating scales: questions that require the participant to represent their answer on the numerical scale provided to them.
- Open questions: questions which allow the participant to give detailed answers without any restrictions.
- Closed questions: questions which allow the participant to respond using a few, stated responses without the opportunity to expand on their answers.
Define
interviews
Interviews are a research method using verbal questions
asked directly to the participants.
3 types of interviews
- Structured: an interview with questions in a fixed order which may be scripted. Consistency might also be required in the interviewer’s posture, voice, etc., and hence these are highly standardized.
- Semi-structured: an interview with a fixed list of questions, however, the interviewer could add more questions if required to clarify or get details on any previous answers.
- Unstructured: an interview in which most questions depend on the respondent’s answers. A list of topics may be provided that need to be covered for the interview.
What are the features of an
independent measures design?
- Two participant groups
- One group performs the control condition
- The other performs the experimental condition of the IV
What are the features of a
repeated measures design?
- One participant group
- Participant group carries out both the control and the experimental condition
Advantages of
independent measures design
- less order effects
- less demand characteristics
Disadvantages of
independent measures design
- more participant variables
- more participants needed, more time-consuming
Advantages of
repeated measures design
- less participant variables
- less participants needed, less time-consuming
Disadvantages for
repeated measures design
- more order effects
- more demand characteristics
covert observation
definition
participants are unaware that they are being observed
questionnaires
features
strengths
high reliability - standardised procedure
large amount of data collected easily
easy to administer
weaknesses
social-desirable answers/demand characteristics
close-ended questions are restricting
interviews
features
strength
more detailed responses to collect in-depth data
weaknesses
social desirability bias / less truthful answers
Define
case study
A detailed investigation of a single instance, usually a
person, family or institute, that produced in-depth data
specific to that instance.
case studies
features
strength
high ecological validity - participants are studied in their everyday lives
in-depth data - researchers only focus on a small group/singular participant
weaknesses
subjectivity - data gained is based on the sample who is unique
low reliability - sample has naturally-occuring unique characteristics
low generalisability - sample is unique
Define
observation
A research method that involves watching human or
animal behaviour.
An observer can be overt/covert or participant/non-participant
Correlation co-efficient
A number between -1 and +1 that shows the strength of a correlation
* a co-efficient of -1 meaning there is a perfect negative correlation
* a co-efficient of +1 meaning there is a perfect positive correlation
Experiment
definition
an investigation looking for a causal
relationship in which an IV is manipulated and is expected to be responsible for changes in the DV.
Correlation
A research method that looks for a relationship between two measured variables, where a change in one variable is related to a change in the other.
Causal relationship
A link between two variables such that a change in one variable is responsible for the change in the other variable.
control condition
definition
a situation in which the IV is absent. This is compared to the experimental condition(s)
mundane realism
definition
the extent to which a task represents the real-world situation
face validity
definition
a measure of validity indicating whether a measure appears to test what it claims to
concurrent validity
definition
when a test correlates well with a measure that has previously been validated
objectivity
definition
an unbiased viewpoint that is not affected by an individual’s feelings, beliefs or experiences, so should be consistent between different researchers
subjectivity
definition
a personal viewpoint which may be biased by one’s feelings, beliefs or experiences and may differ between researchers
inter-rater reliability
definition
the extent to which two researchers interpreting qualitative responses will produce the same records from the same raw data
methods of testing reliability
- test-retest method: do the task twice and then comparing the results of each time to check their similarity
-
split-half method: the questions are the same in
both halves of the task but presented in different a manner; the results of the first half must be the same as the results of second half
negative correlation
relationship between two variables where as one variable goes up, the other goes down
population
definition
Individuals who share a common characteristic
sample
definition
individuals who participate in a study
order effects
definition
consequences of doing tests/tasks more than once
practice effects
definition
participants improve with repetition
fatigue effects
definition
participants get worse with repetition
opportunity sampling
strength
many participants can be obtained quickly and easily using the people available
weakness
sample may not be diverse enough to allow generalisation
volunteer sampling
strength
the people are willing because they have volunteered so are likely to be prepared to complete the experiment/are unlikely to withdraw
the participants come to the experimenter which is easy/quick
weakness
sample may not be diverse enough to allow generalisation
random sampling
strength
easy to generalise to general population
weakness
a sample representative of the target population cannot be guaranteed
questionnaire
definition
research method asking questions, mainly written, to gain information from the participants
