Incomplete [🧠] Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Question 1

Define

Positive reinforcement

Answer 1

A favourable event or outcome given after a desired behaviour has been exhibited

Question 2

What is

SPR training

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 2

Secondary positive reinforcement is training in which a secondary reinforcer such as a sound marker is given, followed with administration of a primary positive reinforcer which is typically food

Question 3

What is SPR training used for?

Answer 3

SPR training is used in order to form an association between behaviour and primary positive reinforcer

Question 4

What is

free contact

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 4

a management system where there is unlimited contact between handlers and elephants

Question 5

What is

protected contact

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 5

a management system where a barrier is maintained between the elephants and handlers, relying on positive reinforcement

it improves keeper safety

Question 6

Benefits of secondary positive reinforcement for animal training

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 6

For the animal
1. increases creativity, choice, control and problem solving
2. improved psychological wellbeing

For the handlers - safer conditions

Question 7

What was the aim of the study?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 7

The aim of the study was to determine the effectiveness of secondary positive reinforcement on training free-contact, traditionally trained elephants to voluntarily perform a trunk wash for the purpose of tuberculosis testing

Question 8

Sample of Fagen et al.

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 8

• 5 female elephants
• 4 juveniles, 1 adult
• juveniles aged 5-7 years old
• adult in her 50s
• all elephants are free-contact
• none of the elephants had previously been exposed to SPR training

Question 9

What can positive reinforcement training improve in husbandry and veterinary procedures?

Answer 9

• behavioural reliability
• captive management
• welfare

Question 10

Describe the kocha

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 10

A whittled bamboo stick

Question 11

During the course of all sessions, what was the total training time for Elephant 2?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 11

257 minutes

Question 12

During the course of all sessions, what was the total training time for Elephant 4?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 12

451 minutes

Question 13

Define

operant conditioning

Answer 13

a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior, where an association is made between a behaviour and a consequence for that behavior

positive consequence → likely repetition of behaviour
negative consequence → unlikely repetition of behaviour

Question 14

How does positive reinforcement affect a response/behaviour happening?

Answer 14

response or behaviour is strengthened by the addition of praise or a direct reward

Question 15

Define

negative reinforcement

Answer 15

the removal of an unfavorable event or outcome after the display of a behaviour, where a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant

Question 16

Define

punishment

Answer 16

the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment, positive and negative.

Question 17

Define

punishment by application

positive punishment

Answer 17

punishment that presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.

Question 18

Define

punishment by removal

negative punishment

Answer 18

punishment where a favourable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs, decreasing the behaviour

Question 19

Significance of reinforcement schedules in the speed and strength of acquisition of behaviour

Answer 19

timing and frequency of reinforcement influences how new behaviours are learned and how old behaviours are modified

Question 20

Distractions for the elephants

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 20

• other animals in the neighbouring jungle
• the presence of large audiences of tourists sometimes approaching to take photographs during the training sessions
• the proximity of the afternoon sessions to their evening meal

Question 21

Why did Elephant 5 fail to complete the training in the available time?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 21

• 2-month-old calf wandered into the training sessions on a regular basis, reached into the reward bucket, and interrupted the sessions. Mahouts’ efforts to minimize calf’s presence might have been even more distracting to Elephant 5
• for 1 week toward the end of training, Elephant 5 was noticeably impatient and unfocused, a period coinciding with the presence of a foot abscess
• Elephant 5 had some vision impairment and trunk weakness
• age might have also been a factor in her learning style (used to punishment by application)
• trainer’s were able to learn from failures and successes in one juvenile elephant and apply them to the other juveniles. These modifications were less applicable to Elephant 5 because she was the only adult

Question 22

Individual differences in Elephant 1

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 22

consistently showed impatience and declining performance with repetition; thus, her final trunk-wash test was preplanned to be only a 5-offer test (still requiring the 80% correct as passing criteria)
* she was the youngest; decline in performance with repetition can be attributed to age or simply personality

Question 23

Application to everyday life

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 23

1. in less than a month, with one to two short training sessions a day, juvenile elephants can be taught to voluntarily participate in a trunk wash
2. for elephants with severe trunk-handling phobia, they must undergo trunk desensitization to master certain skills and would benefit from a modified method
3. training time varies with the trainer’s experience, strength of the reward, and stress level of the elephant.

Question 24

Improving the Study

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 24

1. alter the criteria for passing a behavioural task in the performance tests - criterion was a subjective assessment by the trainer
2. have stricter criteria regarding the time a position is held with exact positioning parameters (e.g., trunk a certain height, in a certain orientation, etc.)
3. evaluate or videotape sessions to be available for review and scoring
4. have additional personnel and equipment to improve the objectivity and accuracy of data recording

Question 25

Future Studies

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 25

• explore training for trunk washes using SPR in male elephants, in other age groups, with a larger number of study elephants, or in other locations or settings around the world.
• expand on SPR’s use for training animals in other behaviours necessary for veterinary or general husbandry management.
• include a control group or comparison group of traditionally trained elephants could further emphasize the benefits of SPR training.
• assess the welfare impacts of traditional versus SPR training, including their support of veterinary procedures and their effects on the animals’ overall stress levels.

Question 26

What reinforcement schedules were used to train the elephants?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 26

Continuous reinforcement and Partial reinforcement

Question 27

Define

Continuous reinforcement

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 27

delivering a reinforcement every time a response occurs, used during the initial stages of learning to create a strong association between the behavior and response

Question 28

Define

Partial Reinforcement

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 28

reinforcement given occasionally, not on every instance

Question 29

Define

primary reinforcer

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 29

reward that fulfils a biological need

E.g. food, drink, shelter

Question 30

Define

secondary reinforcer

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 30

reinforcer that is learned and work via association with primary reinforcers

E.g. money, good grades, tokens, stars/stickers

Question 31

How were the elephants housed for the study?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 31

• elephants leg chains were normally placed with both front legs chained together or on a single front leg
• • allowed enough laxity in the chains for the elephant to move*
• Husbandry conditions at the stable weren’t altered
• Not every elephant was trained during each session due to time constraints and mahout availability, but no elephant went longer than 2 days without a training session

Question 32

Research method

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 32

• controlled observation
• structured observation
• behaviour checklist used to record the elephants’ responses (% pass)

Question 33

Primary reinforcer of the study

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 33

chopped banana

Question 34

Secondary reinforcer of the study

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 34

short whistle

Question 35

Indoor session times

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 35

7:30am to 10am
4pm to 7pm

Question 36

What did the mahout do?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 36

Mahout stood to the side and did not speak to or signal to the elephants, but was present for safety

Question 37

How did the elephants indicate that they did not wish to engage in a session?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 37

by turning or
walking away from the trainer

Question 38

State the 5 behavioural tasks the elephants were required to do in training for the trunk wash

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 38

1. Trunk here
2. Trunk up
3. Bucket
4. Blow
5. Steady

Question 39

Describe the behavioural task ‘trunk here’

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 39

elephant places the end of its trunk into the trainer’s hand

Question 40

Describe the behavioural task ‘trunk up’

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 40

elephant lifts the trunk upwards so that the fluid ran to the base of the trunk

Question 41

Describe the behavioural task ‘bucket’

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 41

elephant lowers the tip of its trunk in the bucket

Question 42

Describe the behavioural task ‘blow’

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 42

elephant exhales through trunk into the bucket

Question 43

Describe the behavioural task ‘steady’

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 43

elephants hold the position they have previously been asked to do

Question 44

What was the purpose of training the elephants?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 44

to teach the elephants to perform a voluntary trunk wash, actively moving their trunk in response to a cue

Question 45

What was the marker-reward relationship established?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 45

whistle-banana

Question 46

What were the three techniques that the elephants were taught with?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 46

1. capture
2. lure
3. shaping

Question 47

State what is meant by the ‘capture’ technique

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 47

waiting for the animal to perform a behaviour naturally, then ‘capturing’ it by marking it with a reward

Question 48

State what is meant by the ‘lure’ technique

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 48

the elephant is lured into a certain body position by placing a reward in a certain place

used for non-natural behaviours

Question 49

State what is meant by the ‘shaping’ technique

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 49

after starting either capture or lure, rewards are then only given for the behaviours that are the ‘best’

Question 50

Why did the behavioral tasks have to occur smoothly in succession?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 50

so that none of the fluid was lost on the ground and the elephant did not drink the solution

Question 51

Name the 3 ways
in which data
was collected
in this study.

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 51

1. Session times
2. Number of offers
3. Performance tests

Question 52

Which elephant took the least number of sessions to learn the trunk wash?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 52

Elephant 2,
after only 25 training sessions
mean duration: 10.29 min

Question 53

Which elephants took the most number of sessions to learn the trunk wash?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 53

Elephant 3 and 4
after 35 training sessions
Elephant 3 mean session duration: 13.27 min
Elephant 4 mean session duration: 11.11 min

Question 54

Which elephant had the shortest total training time?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 54

Elephant 2

257 min

Question 55

Which elephant had the longest total training time?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 55

Elephant 4

451 min

Question 56

All elephants passed all individual behavioural tests before their final testing session, with these exceptions…

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 56

• Elephant 5 didn’t pass ‘blow’, desensitization to syringe or ‘steady’ tests
• Elephants 2 and 4 passed the full trunk-wash test but never the ‘steady’ tests

Question 57

What did an elephant’s ability to pass an individual behavioural test depend on?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 57

• relative difficulty of the task
• when the task was first introduced in the training process

Question 58

How was the relative difficulty of a task measured?

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Answer 58

relative difficulty measured by the number of offers given to the elephant before it first got a passing score on the individual behavioural test

how much practice was needed before a task was considered reliable