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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Aim

A

General statement of what the researcher intends to investigate

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2
Q

Hypothesis

A

Clear and precise statement stating relationship between variables investigated
Prediction of what will happen

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3
Q

Directional hypothesis (one-tailed)

A

Clear difference is made, e.g., people who drink energy drink become more talkative than people who don’t…

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4
Q

Non-directional hypothesis (two-tailed)

A

States a difference but the nature of difference is not specified, e.g., people who drink energy drink differ in terms of talkativeness…

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5
Q

When to use a one-tailed

A

Findings of previous research studies suggest particular outcome

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6
Q

When to use a two-tailed

A

No previous research/findings from earlier studies

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7
Q

IV

A

Some aspect of the environmental situation that is manipulated by the researcher/changes naturally so DV effect can be measured

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8
Q

DV

A

Variable that is measured by the researcher. Effect caused by IV

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9
Q

Levels of IV

A

Control condition = leaving things how they are, e.g., no energy drink/drinking water
Experimental condition = changing circumstances, e.g., drinking energy drink

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10
Q

Operationalisation

A

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured (numerical), e.g., after drinking 300ml of energy drink ptpts say more words in the next 5 min…

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11
Q

Extraneous variables

A

Any variable other than the IV that may have an effect on the DV if it isn’t controlled; do NOT vary systematically with IV, e.g., lighting

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12
Q

Confounding variables

A

Any variable other than the IV that may have an effect on the DV; DO vary systematically with IV

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13
Q

Demand characteristics

A

Any cue from the researcher/situation that may be interpreted by ptpts as revealing the purpose (leads to behaviour change)

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14
Q

Investigator effects

A

Any effect of the investigators behaviour on the research outcome, e.g., leading questions

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15
Q

Randomisation

A

Use of change in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials; deciding order of conditions

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16
Q

Standardisation

A

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all ptpts in a research study

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17
Q

Independent groups

A

Two separate groups in two separate conditions

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18
Q

Repeated measures

A

Only one group of ptpts taking part in both conditions

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19
Q

Matched pairs

A

Two separate groups matched on certain qualities

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20
Q

+/- of Independent groups

A

+ Order effects
- Individual differences

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21
Q

+/- of Repeated measures

A

+ Ptpt variables controlled (fewer needed)
- Order effects

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22
Q

+/- of Matched pairs

A

+ Order effects not an issue
- Ptpts cannot be matched exactly; time-consuming

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23
Q

Lab experiment

A

Controlled environment - researcher manipulates IV and records effect on DV

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24
Q

Field experiment

A

Natural setting - researcher manipulates IV and records effect on DV

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25
Q

Natural experiment

A

Change in the IV is not brought about by researcher but would’ve happened regardless

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26
Q

Quasi experiment

A

Almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients: IV has not been determined by anyone - variables simply exist, e.g., being old/young

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27
Q

+/- Lab experiment

A

+ High control over extraneous variables; replication more possible
- May lack generalisability

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28
Q

+/- Field experiment

A

+ Higher mundane realism
- Ethical issues - consent

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29
Q

+/- Natural experiment

A

+ High external validity
- Naturally occurring event may only happen rarely

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30
Q

+/- Quasi experiment

A

+ Often controlled conditions - high control over extraneous variables
- Cannot randomly allocate ptpts to conditions

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31
Q

Random sampling

A

All members of target population have equal chance of being selected (lottery method)

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32
Q

Systematic sampling

A

Every Nth member of the target population, e.g., every 5th pupil on a school register

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33
Q

Stratified sampling

A

Researchers divide subjects into subgroups based on characteristics they share. Once divided, each group is randomly sampled

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34
Q

Opportunity sampling

A

Researchers select anyone who happens to be willing/available

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35
Q

Volunteer sampling

A

Ptpts select themselves to be part of the sample

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36
Q

Random s +/-

A

+ Free from researcher bias
- Time-consuming/difficult to conduct (complete list may be difficult to obtain)

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37
Q

Systematic s +/-

A

+ Avoids researcher bias
- Fairly unrepresentative, e.g., could be an all-male sample

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38
Q

Stratified s +/-

A

+ Avoids researcher bias
- Identified strata cannot reflect all the ways that people are different

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39
Q

Opportunity s +/-

A

+ Less time-consuming
- Unrepresentative; researcher bias

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40
Q

Volunteer s +/-

A

+ Minimal input from researcher - less time-consuming
- Volunteer bias

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41
Q

BPS code of ethics

A

Instructs psychologists about what behaviour is and isn’t acceptable when dealing with ptpts
Respect, competence, responsibility; integrity

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42
Q

Informed consent & way of dealing

A

Making ptpts aware of aims, procedures & rights
* consent form/signature

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43
Q

Protection from harm & way of dealing

A

Ptpts should not be placed at risk
* counselling

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44
Q

Deception & way of dealing

A

Deliberately misleading/withholding info
* debrief; right to withhold

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45
Q

Confidentiality & way of dealing

A

Right to control info/remain private
* anonymity, e.g, initials

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46
Q

Pilot study

A

Small-scale version of investigation before the real one
Allows problems to be identified

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47
Q

Single-blind procedure

A

Researchers do not tell ptpts if they are being given a test/control treatment

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48
Q

Double-blind procedure

A

Neither the ptpt nor the experimenter know who is receiving a particular treatment

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49
Q

Single-blind procedure +/-

A

+ Avoids demand characteristics
- Experimenter bias

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50
Q

Double-blind procedure +

A

+ Prevents bias/placebo effect

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51
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

Watching and recording the behaviour in the setting it would normally take place

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52
Q

Controlled observation

A

Watching and recording behaviour in a structured environment, e.g., lab

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53
Q

Covert observation

A

Ptpts are unaware their behaviour is being recorded and watched

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54
Q

Overt observation

A

Ptpts are aware their behaviour is being recorded and watched

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55
Q

Participant observation

A

Researcher who is observing is part of the group being observed

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56
Q

Non-participant observation

A

Researcher observes from a distance; is not a part of the group

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57
Q

Naturalistic obs +/-

A

+ High external validity
- Replication can be difficult

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58
Q

Controlled obs +/-

A

+ Easy replication
- Low mundane realism

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59
Q

Covert obs +/-

A

+ Natural behaviour is recorded (high internal validity)
- Ethical issues (no consent)

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60
Q

Overt obs +/-

A

+ Ethically acceptable (consent)
- Demand characteristics

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61
Q

Participant obs +/-

A

+ Can be more insightful
- Researcher may lose objectivity

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62
Q

Non-participant obs +/-

A

+ Can be more objective
- May lose some valuable insight; observer bias

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63
Q

Structured observation

A

Researcher quantifies what they are observing using predetermined list of behaviours/sampling methods

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64
Q

Unstructured observation

A

Continuous recording - researcher writes down everything they see

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65
Q

Structured obs +/-

A

+ Quantitative data
- Not much depth of detail

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66
Q

Unstructured obs +/-

A

+ Rich in detail
- Qualitative (difficult to analyse; can’t be used in stats test table)

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67
Q

Behavioural categories

A

Breaking target behaviour into components/checklists, e.g., affection: kissing, hand holding, smiling
Must be measurable/observable

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68
Q

Time-sampling

A

Recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame

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69
Q

Event-sampling

A

Counting a number of times a behaviour occurs

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70
Q

Time-sampling +/-

A

+ Reduces number of observations (less time-consuming)
- Unrepresentative of whole observation (behaviour may be missed)

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71
Q

Event-sampling +/-

A

+ Behaviours are not missed
- More time-consuming

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72
Q

Questionnaires: open questions

A

Does not have a fixed range of answers (respondents free to answer in any way they wish) - qualitative

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73
Q

Questionnaires: closed questions

A

Fixed number of responses - can be qualitative/quantitative

74
Q

Questionnaires +/-

A

+ Cost-effective & straightforward to analyse
Can gather large amount of info quickly
- Demand characteristics
Response bias - social desirability

75
Q

Structured interviews

A

Pre-determined set of questions asked in a fixed order (q+a pattern)

76
Q

Structured interviews +/-

A

+ Straightforward to replicate
- Not possible for interviewers to deviate from topic

77
Q

Unstructured interviews

A

Works like a conversation - no set questions; an aim that a certain topic will be discussed

78
Q

Unstructured interviews +/-

A

+ More flexibility - interviewees can go in depth
- May lie for social desirability/problems of replication

79
Q

Semi-structured interviews

A

Falls between structured & unstructured, e.g., a job interview. Set list + free-flowing

80
Q

Likert scale questionnaires

A

Respondent indicates their agreement with a statement of usually 5 points, e.g., ‘zombie films can have educational value, 1- strongly agree, 5- strongly disagree’

81
Q

Rating scale questionnaires

A

Respondents identify a value representing their strength of a feeling about a topic, e.g., ‘how entertaining do you find zombie films? 1- very, 5- not at all’

82
Q

Fixed choice option questionnaires

A

Includes list of possible options; respondents required to indicate those that apply, e.g., ‘why do you watch zombie films: tick all those that apply’

83
Q

Interview schedule

A

List of questions intended to cover
Should be standardised for each ptpt to reduce the effect of investigator bias; interviewer will take notes

84
Q

Designing interviews

A

Usually interviewer and single ptpt
Can be a group
Interviewer should conduct in a quiet room away from others

85
Q

Writing good questions: overuse of jargon

A

Simple and easily understood, e.g., ‘do you agree that maternal deprivation in infanthood leads to affectionless psychopathy?’

86
Q

Writing good questions: emotive language & leading questions

A

Attitudes towards a topic are made clear through ways of phrasing; leading questions can result in unreliable answers

87
Q

Writing good questions: double-barrelled questions

A

Contains two questions in one. Issue ? respondents may agree with one half and not the other

88
Q

Writing good questions: double negatives

A

Unstraightforward ways of asking questions, e.g., ‘I am not unhappy in my job (a/d)’

89
Q

Correlation

A

Illustrates strength and direction of an association between two/more co-variables

90
Q

Positive correlation

A

As one co-variable increases, so does the other

91
Q

Negative correlation

A

As one co-variable increases, the other decreases

92
Q

Zero correlation

A

No relationship between the co-variables

93
Q

Curvilinear relationship

A

As one variable increases, so does the other but only up to a certain point as one variable begins to increase and the other begins to decrease, e.g., Yerkes-Dodson Law

94
Q

Correlations +/-

A

+ Quick/economical to carry out
Secondary data can be used in correlational study
- Difficult to establish a cause-and-effect
Third variable problem

95
Q

Qualitative data

A

Displayed in words; non-numerical

96
Q

Qualitative data +/-

A

+ Depth of detail; allows ptpts to develop opinions
- Difficult to analyse; make comparisons with other data

97
Q

Quantitative data

A

Displayed numerically; not in words

98
Q

Quantitative data +/-

A

+ Can be analysed statistically/converted to graphs
- Lack of depth in detail

99
Q

Primary data

A

When info is obtained first hand by the researcher for an investigation

100
Q

Primary data +/-

A

+ Targets the exact info which the researcher needs so the data fits their aims
- Time-consuming/expensive

101
Q

Secondary data

A

Info is collected by someone other than the researcher but used by them

102
Q

Secondary data +/-

A

+ Data is accessed so requires minimal effort to collect
- Data may be outdated/incomplete/unreliable

103
Q

Meta-analysis

A

Researcher combines results from many different studies; uses all the data to form an overall view of the subject investigated

104
Q

Meta-analysis +/-

A

+ More generalisability (larger amount studied)
- Publication bias (file drawer problem)

105
Q

Measures of central tendency

A

Mean, median; mode

106
Q

Mean

A

Total of all values divided by number of values

107
Q

Mean +/-

A

+ Good for interval data/makes use of all values
- Influenced by extreme scores so can be unrepresentative

108
Q

Median

A

Arrange data from lowest to highest then find central value

109
Q

Median +/-

A

+ Good for ordinal data/not affected by extreme scores
- Not as sensitive as mean; doesn’t use all data

110
Q

Mode

A

Most frequently occurring value in a set of data

111
Q

Mode +/-

A

+ Useful for nominal data
- Not useful when there are several modes

112
Q

Measures of dispersion

A

Range & standard deviation

113
Q

Range

A

Minus lowest score from highest score

114
Q

Range +/-

A

+ Easy to calculate
- Does not use all data/affected by extreme values

115
Q

Standard deviation

A

Low SD = more data is clustered close to the mean hence there is less data spread

116
Q

Standard deviation +/-

A

+ Precise measure where all data values are considered
- Difficult to calculate; affected by extreme values

117
Q

Bar charts

A

Describes data divided into categories

118
Q

Histograms

A

Represents that we are dealing with continuous data

119
Q

Scattergrams

A

Used to show associations between co-variables

120
Q

Line graphs

A

Points are connected by lines to show change of values

121
Q

Normal distribution

A

Symmetrical pattern forming a bell-shape

122
Q

Skewed distribution

A

Spread of frequency that is not symmetrical; all data clusters to one end

123
Q

When only can a sign test be used?

A
  1. Looking for a difference not an association
  2. Using a related experimental design
  3. Nominal data
124
Q

How to conduct a sign test

A
  1. Convert data to nominal
  2. Subtract score 2 from score 1. If less than = -, if more than = +, if the same = leave
  3. Add up + and -
  4. Less frequent sign = S
  5. Compare calculated value with critical value
125
Q

Rules for a sign test

A

If S is less than or equal to critical value = significant difference

If S is more than or equal to critical value = no more significant difference

126
Q

Standard level of significance

A

0.05

127
Q

Peer review

A

Assessment of scientific work by experts in the same field to make sure all research intended to be published is of high quality

128
Q

Main purposes of a peer review

A
  1. Knowing which research is worthwhile so funding can be allocated
  2. Validate relevance and quality to prevent release of fraudulent research
  3. Suggest possible improvements
129
Q

Weaknesses of a peer review

A

Anonymity might mean rival researchers can be easily criticised
Publication bias
Can be difficult to find an expert

130
Q

Implications of psychological research for the economy: Psychopathology

A

Treatments: CBT and REBT for depression, drug therapy, and OCD
Economy: Workers able to return to work

131
Q

Implications of psychological research for the economy: Attachment

A

Role of the father: Fathers can take on role of PCG
Economy: Mothers can return to work/maximised income

132
Q

Implications of psychological research for the economy: Social

A

Social change: Minority influence, appealing to NSI, disobedient models
Economy: Health campaigns, environmental campaigns, unions strike

133
Q

Implications of psychological research for the economy: Memory

A

EWT: How leading questions/PED affect EWT
Economy: Led to police using cognitive interview reducing wrongful convictions

134
Q

Case studies

A

Detailed study into the life of a person covering backgrounds
Builds a qualitative case history

135
Q

Case studies +

A

Detailed (in depth insight)
Forms basis for future

136
Q

Case studies -

A

Not generalisable
Time-consuming/difficult to replicate

137
Q

Content analysis

A

Studying behaviour indirectly by studying things we produce, e.g., TV ads/newspapers

138
Q

How to conduct a content analysis

A
  1. Identify hypothesis
  2. Create coding system, e.g., 1= m, 2 = f
  3. Gather resources
  4. Conduct analysis, record data in table
  5. Analyse data which is descriptive/qualitative
  6. Write up a scientific report
139
Q

Content analysis +

A

Strong external validity as already in real world (high mundane)
Easy replication

140
Q

Content analysis -

A

Observer bias
Content of choice to analyse can be biased by researcher

141
Q

Internal reliability

A

How consistent something is within itself

142
Q

External reliability

A

Consistent results are produced regardless of when the investigation is used/who administers it

143
Q

Split-half method

A

Randomly select half of questions; put them in one form then do the same for others

144
Q

Test-retest

A

Researcher administers same test on same person different occasions

145
Q

Inter-observer reliability

A

Extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers involved in observing behaviour
Eliminates subjectivity bias

146
Q

Improving reliability in questionnaires

A

Replace open questions with room for misinterpretation with closed, fixed choice alternatives

147
Q

Improving reliability in interviews

A

Use the same properly trained interviewer & follow a structured interview

148
Q

Improving reliability in experiments

A

Lab experiments - strict control over procedural aspects such as conditions tested in

149
Q

Improving reliability in observations

A

Making sure behavioural categories have been properly operationalised & that they are measurable/don’t overlap

150
Q

Internal validity

A

Whether outcomes observed are due to the manipulation of the IV and not any other factor

151
Q

External validity

A

Factors outside the investigation; is generalisable

152
Q

Ecological validity

A

Generalisability to other places/settings

153
Q

Population validity

A

Generalisability to other people

154
Q

Temporal validity

A

Generalisability to other eras

155
Q

Face validity

A

Whether it measures what it is supposed to

156
Q

Concurrent validity

A

Extent to which a psychological measure compares to an existing measure

157
Q

Predictive validity

A

How well a test can predict future events/behaviours

158
Q

Improving validity in experimental research

A

Using a control group - able to assess whether changes in the DV were due to effect of the IV

159
Q

Improving validity in questionnaires

A

Lie scale - assess consistency of answers & control social desirability bias

160
Q

Improving validity in observations

A

Ensuring not to overlap behavioural categories; use covert observations

161
Q

Improving validity in qualitative methods

A

Direct quotes from ptpts & different sources for evidence, e.g., diaries/interviews/observations

162
Q

Nominal data

A

Categories, e.g., male/female

163
Q

Ordinal data

A

Ranks, e.g., low income/middle income/high income

164
Q

Interval data

A

Precise, e.g., temperature in C/F

164
Q

Interval data

A

Precise, e.g., temperature in C/F

165
Q

Statistical test table

A

Test of diff
Ind grou Rep m/Mat p Test of a/c
N Chi-sq Sign test Chi-sq

O Mann W Wilcoxon Spear rho

I Unrel t Rel t test Pearsons r

166
Q

Significance

A

How sure we are about a correlation/difference existing
If significant, we reject null hyp and accept alt

167
Q

Probability

A

How likely it is for an event to happen
0 = stat impossibility
1 = stat certainty
Usual = 0.05

168
Q

Type 1 error

A

Incorrect rejection of a null hypothesis which is actually true (false positive)

169
Q

Type 2 error

A

Failure to reject null hyp that is false (false negative)

170
Q

Null hypothesis

A

No relationship between two variables being studied

171
Q

Paradigm

A

Set of shared ideas; assumptions within a scientific discipline

172
Q

Paradigm shift

A

Significant change in central assumptions within a scientific discipline
Shows progress in science

173
Q

Theory construction

A

Gathering evidence from direct observation
Should be able to make diff hyp from a theory

174
Q

Deduction

A

Process of deriving new hypotheses from an already existing theory, e.g., episodic buffer in 2000

175
Q

Falsifiability

A

Theory cannot be considered scientific unless it allows itself to be proven untrue

176
Q

Hypothesis-deductive method

A

Process of formulating hypotheses that can either be proved/disproved by experimentation

177
Q

Replicability

A

Extent to which scientific methods and their results can be repeated by other researchers across other contexts

178
Q

Objectivity

A

All possible biases from the researcher are minimised so they don’t influence the research process

179
Q

Empirical method

A

Evidence is collected through making direct observations; direct experiences

180
Q

Psych as a science (+)

A
  1. Intuitive results produced against common sense
  2. Scientific methods used in many research studies giving scientific credibility
  3. Findings positively impact society, e.g., CBT
181
Q

Psych as a science (-)

A
  1. Subjectivity
  2. Not all research is generalisable, e.g., case studies
  3. Psychologists often make inferences rather than directly measuring it

Psychology (7 decks)

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