Approaches Flashcards
Early philosophical roots
Locke - empiricism: all experience can be obtained through the senses > forms basis
Darwin - evolutionary theory: all behaviour has changed over generations > more adaptive genes survive & reproduce
Wundt
First ever lab dedicated to psychological enquiry opened by Wundt
Father of Psychology
Structuralism: braking down thoughts, images; feelings
Introspection
Looking into the human mind. Ptpts asked to reflect on own cog processes; describe them
Psych as a science: 4 goals
- Description - what occurred
- Explanation - why it occurred
- Prediction - likely to occur
- Change - altering what occurred
Use of scientific methods
Introspection/psych as a science AO3
+ Psych as a science focuses on being objective; conducting research in strictly controlled environments
- Introspection provides subjective data
Behaviourism assumptions
Explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable
Determined through experience
Blank slates
Classical conditioning
Learning through association
Pavlov’s study
UCS > UCR
food salivation
NS > NR
bell
UCS + NS > UCR
food bell salivation
CS > CR
bell salivation
Operant conditioning
Learning through reinforcement
Pos & neg reinforcement increase likelihood of repeating behaviour. Punishment decreases
Positive reinforcement
Receiving reward when certain behaviour performed
Negative reinforcement
Avoiding something unpleasant
Punishment
Unpleasant consequence
Skinner’s study
Every time rat activated a lever in the box = rewarded with food pellet
Would continue to perform behaviour
Behaviourism AO3 1: RWA
+ Token economy systems in prisons/institutions. Exchanging tokens for rewards to improve behaviour
Behaviourism AO3 2: Support for classical
+ Little Albert - conditioned to fear rats through noise
UCS > UCR
noise fear
NS > NR
rat
UCS + NS > UCR
noise rat fear
CS > CR
rat fear
Behaviourism AO3 3: Scientific credibility
+ Focuses on measurement of observable behaviour in highly controlled lab settings
Objectivity & replication emphasised
Nomothetic
Behaviourism AO3 4: Environmentally deterministic
- Sees all behaviour as determined by experiences. Ignores influences of free will
Social Learning Theory assumptions
Behaviour is learned through observation & imitation of behaviour from those around us
Can be direct/indirect
Vicarious reinforcement
Indirect - observing behaviour of others
May imitate but only if behaviour is rewarded
Observes consequences
Mediational processes
- Attention - extent to which we notice behaviour
- Retention - how well it is remembered
- Motor reproduction - ability to perform
- Motivation - will to perform
Identification
Role models
Similar characteristics to learners
More likely to imitate if they identify with them
SLT AO3 1: Supporting research
+ Bandura
A saw praise for abusing doll
B saw punishment
C saw no response
(F) group A most likely to imitate, then C, then B
SLT AO3 2: Underestimates influence of biological factors
- Consistent findings in bobo exp = boys more aggressive than girls
May be explained by hormones (diff in level of testosterone - increased aggression)
SLT AO3 3: RWA
+ Copycat killings; criminal activity understanding
Observing someone engaging in crime makes someone more likely
E.g., James Bulger killers & Childs Play 3
SLT AO3 4: Problems with causality
- Other factors may be involved, e.g., deprivation likely to influence engagement in crime
Cognitive assumptions
Argues internal mental processes should be scientifically studied
Investigates areas neglected by behaviourists
Private processes; cannot be observed
Brain and computer model
Brain stores info (memory)
Computer stores info (data)
Brain’s input = senses, output = behaviour
Role of schema
Mental frameworks
Package of ideas developed through experience
Born with simple motor schema for innate behaviour
Becomes more detailed as we grow
Enables us to process info quickly
Emergence of cognitive neuroscience
Mapping brain areas to specific cog functions
E.g., Broca’s and speech production
Advances in brain scanning techniques - scientists able to describe neuro basis of mental processes - establishes basis of mental disorders, e.g., OCD/Basal Ganglia
Cognitive AO3 1: Research support for schemas
+ Bugelski
Rat-man: two groups - pic sequence
1) faces 2) animals
Ptpts who saw faces more likely to see man; ptpts who saw animals likely to see rat
Cognitive AO3 2: Machine reductionism
- Ignores influence of human emotion/motivation on cog system + how this may affect ability to process info
E.g., research into memory and anxiety on EWT
Cognitive AO3 3: RWA
+ Development of AI & thinking machines (robots); advances that may alter how we live in the future
Cognitive AO3 4: Scientific and objective methods
+ Highly controlled methods of study to enable researchers to infer cog processes. E.g., lab exp = reliable, objective. Cog neuro enable bio + cog psych to merge
Biological assumptions
We must look at bio processes & structures to explain behaviour
Physical brain rather than thinking processes
Genetic basis of behaviour
Are behavioural characteristics inherited?
Twin studies: concordance rates comparison. MZ usually higher concordance than DZ - 100% shared genes
Genotype
Unique genetic makeup coded in chromosomes
Fixed at conception, e.g., having blonde hair
Phenotype
Expression of genetic makeup - can be influenced by environment, e.g., dyeing hair red
Evolution
Natural selection - survival of the fittest
Genetically determined behaviour enhances survival/will be passed on
Biological AO3 1: Scientific methods
+ Makes use of precise/scientific methodology, e.g., fMRIs/EEGs/twin studies
Advances in tech = possible to accurately measure bio processes
Biological AO3 2: RWA
+ Increased understanding of biochem processes in the brain > development of psychoactive drugs
Treat mental illness, able to manage condition
Biological AO3 3: Causal conclusions
- Offers explanations for MI in terms of action of neurotransmitters. Association between factors does not mean one is a cause
Biological AO3 4: Reductionism
- Biologically reductionist
Ignores other exp, e.g., schema/vicarious reinforcement/id, ego; superego
Role of the unconscious
Iceberg model
Contains disturbing memories repressed/locked away/forgotten
Can be accessed through parapraxes
Preconscious = accessed if desired
Id
Pleasure principle
Gets what it wants
Only one present at birth
Entirely selfish
Demands gratification
Ego
Reality principle
Mediator
Develops around 2
Reduced conflict by employing defence mechanisms
Superego
Morality principle
Formed at end of phallic stage (5)
Sense of right and wrong
Punishes for wrongdoing
Defence mechanisms
- Repression - forcing distressed memory out of conscious mind
- Denial - refusing to acknowledge aspect of reality
- Displacement - transferring feelings onto substitute target
Psychosexual stages
- Oral 0-1
- Anal 1-3
- Phallic 3-5
- Latency
- Genital
Focus of pleasure and fixation - oral stage
FOP - mouth
Oral fixation: smoking/nail biting
Focus of pleasure and fixation - anal stage
FOP - anus
Anal retentive: perfectionist/obsessive
Anal expulsive: thoughtless/messy
Focus of pleasure and fixation - phallic stage
FOP - genital area
Oedipus/Electra complex
Phallic personality: narcissism/recklessness/homosexuality
Fixation - latency stage
Earlier conflicts repressed
Fixation - genital stage
Develops during puberty
Sexual desires become conscious
Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
Psychodynamic AO3 1: Explanatory power
+ Controversial: huge influence.
Used to explain wide range of phenomena. Draws attention to connection between exp in childhood & later dev
Psychodynamic AO3 2: Case study for Oedipus Complex
+ Freud claims boys develop hate for F during OC. Little Hans - phobia of horses after seeing one collapse > phobia formed from fear of father; displaced
Psychodynamic AO3 3: RWA
+ Explains why some people become criminal as a result of childhood (weak, deviant/over-harsh)
Psychodynamic AO3 4: Untestable concepts
- Does not meet scientific criterion of falsification - not open to empirical testing. What is at unconscious level cannot be tested
Free will
Free to choose own thoughts
Self-determining whilst still being affected by external/internal influences
Rejection of scientific models to establish general principles
Self-actualisation
Every person has innate tendency to achieve full potential
Represents highest level of hierarchy
Maslow’s hierarchy
- Self-actualisation
- Self-esteem
- Love & belonging
- Safety & security
- Physiological needs
The self, congruence; conditions of worth
Rogers
For personal growth to be achieved, concept of self must be equivalent to their ideal self
Will experience state of incongruence if big gap exists between two selves
^ Self-actualisation will not be possible
Client-centered therapy
Helping people cope with problems of everyday living
Issues we experience explained by unconditional positive regard
Parents who set boundaries for children can cause psychological problems
Humanistic AO3 1: Not reductionist
+ Humanists reject attempts to break up behaviour into smaller components; look at it as a whole
Humanistic AO3 2: Cultural bias
- Ideas more associated with individualist cultures
Collectivists emphasise needs of group
Not all can reach needs prior
Humanistic AO3 3: Untestable concepts
- Includes vague ideas difficult to test
May be a useful therapeutic tool but difficult to test under experimental conditions
Humanistic AO3 4: Positive approach
+ Humanists praised for bringing the person back into psych; promoting positive image
Freud saw humans as slaves to their past
Humanists - optimistic alternative
