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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

How are aims developed

A

From theories based on many hours of research from other sources

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2
Q

What are aims

A

A general statement that describes the purpose of an investigation

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3
Q

Give an example of an aim for energy drinks making someone more talkative

A

To investigate whether drinking energy drinks makes people more talkative

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4
Q

What is a hypothesis

A

A statement made at the start of a study and describes the relation between variables as stated by the theory

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5
Q

What are the 2 different types of hypothesis

A

Directional and non-directional

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6
Q

What is a directional hypothesis

A

Researcher clearly states the difference that should be anticipated between 2 conditions

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7
Q

Give an example of a direction hypothesis using energy drinks and talkativeness

A

People who drink energy drinks will become more talkative

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8
Q

What is a non directional hypothesis

A

It states that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable but the direction of the effect is not specified

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9
Q

Give an example of non-directional hypothesis using energy drinks and talkativeness

A

People who drink energy drinks differ in talkativeness compared to those who don’t

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10
Q

When are directional hypothesis used

A

When theories or previous research suggest a likely outcome and there is no contradictory research

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11
Q

When are non directional hypothesis used

A

When there is a lack of research or contradictory findings on the research topic

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12
Q

What is the independent variable

A

The thing the researcher changes or manipulates

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13
Q

What does the researcher measure in an experiment

A

The impact changing the IV has on the dependant variable

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14
Q

What should happen to all other variables that may effect the dependant variable

A

They should remain constant

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15
Q

Why do extraneous variables need to stay constant

A

So the researcher is certain the IV alone is affecting the DV

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16
Q

What do different experiments does a researchers usually run

A

A control group when IV isn’t manipulated and an experimental group where the IV is changed

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17
Q

Why is a control group important

A

To draw conclusions about the effect of manipulating the IV

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18
Q

Why do we need to operationalise variables

A

To make them testable

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19
Q

What does operationalising variables mean

A

Making it testable by adding in time or quantity such as test participants talkativeness after 300ml of caffeine- the 300ml is operationalising the variables

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20
Q

What is the key to an experiment

A

IV is manipulated to see how it effect DV, any other variables that interfere with the IV should be controlled or removed

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21
Q

What are extraneous variables

A

Anything that is not the independent variable that has the potential to affect the results. Should be controlled where possible. Four types: situational variables, participant variables, investigator effects, demand characteristics

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22
Q

What are nuisance variables

A

Straightforward variables to control like age or room lighting that don’t vary systematically with the IV

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23
Q

What is the difference between extraneous and cofounding variables

A

Extraneous make it harder to detect a result but don’t confound study findings, but, cofounding variables vary systematically with the IV and may cause confusion over what variable is effecting the results

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24
Q

What are cofounding variables

A

Unmeasured variable that influences the relationship between an independent and dependent variable. Could be an extraneous variable that has not been controlled.

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25
Q

What is participant reactivity

A

An extraneous variable in experimental research which is difficult to control

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26
Q

What are demand characteristics

A

Clues which may help participants interpret what’s going on, they may help participant to work out the study aim and therefore effect the results

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27
Q

How may a person act if there are demand characteristics

A

They may over perform to try and please the experimenter (please-U effect) or may perform to sabotage the experiment (screw-U effect), either way there behaviour is no longer natural

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28
Q

What is investigator effects

A

An unwanted influence of the investigator on the research outcome, it can include expectancy effects and unconscious cues or from the research design like participants, equipment or procedure used

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29
Q

What is a good example of investigator effects

A

Leading questions

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30
Q

What is randomisation

A

The use of chance methods to reduce the researchers unconscious bias when designing an investigation and control investigator effects

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31
Q

How does randomisation work

A

Anything such as order of participants or order of numbers or words in an experiment or different conditions should be selected randomly and in a random order

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32
Q

Why is it important to standardise procedures

A

To ensure All participants should be subject to the same environment, info and experience

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33
Q

How does standardisation work

A

There is an exact list of what will happen in the study, including standardised instructions read to each participants

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34
Q

What is experimental design

A

The way in which participants are used in experiments, how they are arranged in different experimental conditions

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35
Q

What is independent groups

A

When 2 separate groups of participants experience 2 different conditions of the experiment, if there are 2 levels of IV each group of participant only experiences 1 IV and the performance of the 2 groups is compared

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36
Q

What is repeated measures

A

All participants experience both experimental conditions and 2 mean scores from both conditions are compared

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37
Q

What is matched pairs

A

Participants are paired together on a variable related to the experiment amd then allocated to different experimental conditions

eg. Participants may be matched by IQ

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38
Q

What is matched pairs an attempt at doing

A

Controlling cofounding variables of participant variables

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39
Q

What are limitations with independent groups

A

Participants variables may effect the results, if experimenter finds a difference between the 2 groups it may be down to participant variables not the IV change. Also, it is less economical than repeated measure as double participants needed, increases time And money spent

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40
Q

How do experiments deal with participant variables in independent groups

A

Random allocation

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41
Q

What is a strength of independent groups

A

Order effects are not a problem so participants less likely to guess aims of study

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42
Q

What is a limitation of repeated measures

A

Participants have to do 2 tasks and it becomes obvious what the IV is which may cause participants to act unnaturally. Order effects also arises as doing 2 tasks may create boredom or fatigue so that may influence results of second tasks or participants performance may improve through practice also effecting results. Order acts as cofounding variable

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43
Q

How do experimenters deal with issues of repeated measures

A

Counterbalancing- some participants start with one condition and others start with the other condition

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44
Q

What is a strength of repeated measures

A

Participant variables are controlled and more economical as fewer participants needed

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45
Q

What is a strength of matched pairs

A

Participants only take part in single condition so order effects and demand characteristics less of a problem

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46
Q

What is a limitation of matched pairs

A

Participants will never be exactly matched, there will always be important differences and it can be time consuming and expensive so less economical

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47
Q

What are lab experiments

A

Conducted in highly controlled environments, not necessarily a lab

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48
Q

Strength of lab experiments

A

High control of cofounding variables and extraneous variables so effect on DV Is likely from IV so high internal validity. Replication is easier and replication is vital to ensure results are valid and not a once off finding

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49
Q

What is a limitation of lab experiments

A

Lack generalisability as may be artificial and not like everyday life, people behave differently in unfamiliar contexts so has low external validity and may give rise to unnatural behaviour from demand characteristics. Also low mundane realism as lab experiments don’t represent everyday experiences

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50
Q

What is a field experiment

A

IV is manipulated in natural more everyday environment, researcher goes to participant

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51
Q

Strengths of field experiments

A

High mundane realism as more natural environment so field experiments may produce more valid and authentic behaviour, especially is participants unaware there being studied so high external validity

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52
Q

What are limitation of field experiments

A

Loss of control over cofounding and extraneous variables, so cause and effect between IV and DV more difficult to establish and replication is difficult. Also, ethical issues of participants are unaware they can’t consent and may be an invasion of privacy

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53
Q

What are natural experiments

A

Researcher measures effect of IV on DV but has no control over the IV. Something else caused IV to vary such as before and after a natural disaster, natural IV doesn’t always refer to the setting of the experiment

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54
Q

Strengths of natural experiments

A

They provide opportunities for research that may not otherwise be done for practical or ethical reasons like Romanian orphans studies, they also have high external validity as involve study of real world problems as they happen

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55
Q

Limitation of natural experiments

A

Naturally occurring events happen rarely so reduce research opportunity. Participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions so less sure of effect of IV on DV, this research may be done in a lab so lack realism and demand characteristics may be an issue

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56
Q

What is a quasi experiment

A

The IV is an existing difference between people such as age or gender, nothing manipulated the variable it just exists and the IV can’t be changed. DV may be naturally occurring or devised by experimenter and measured in lab or field

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57
Q

Strengths of quasi experiments

A

Often carried out in controlled conditions so can be replicated and had high control

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58
Q

Limitation of quasi experiments

A

Can’t randomly allocate participants so may be cofounding variables and IV not deliberately changed so can’t claim IV caused an observed change

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59
Q

What is population

A

A large group of people that a researcher is interested in, often called a target population

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60
Q

Why are not all of the target population sampled

A

For practical and economical reasons

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61
Q

Why is it important the small group of the target population is representative

A

So generalisations can be made

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62
Q

How are samples selected

A

Using a sampling technique that aims to produce a representative sample

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63
Q

What is random sampling

A

Form of sampling where all members have equal chance of selection, obtain a complete list of all participants in the target population and all names assigned numbers, then used lottery method to randomly generate numbers and then will be the sample

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64
Q

What is systematic sampling

A

When every nth member of a target population is selected, u can use a sampling frame to do this. Order population in alphabetical order and every 5th person is selected or order may be randomly generated to reduce bias

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65
Q

What is stratified sampling

A

Composition reflects certain strata within target population. Researcher identifies different strata and then representative sample sizes for each strata is calculated. Within each strata participants are then selected randomly using lottery method

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66
Q

What is opportunity sampling

A

Select who is available and willing to participate in there study. They may ask who is around them at the time for example in the street

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67
Q

What is volunteer sampling

A

Participants select themselves, advert for this may be placed in a newspaper

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68
Q

Strength of random sampling

A

Unbiased so cofounding and extraneous variables divided between each group giving high internal validity

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69
Q

Limitations of random sampling

A

Time consuming, complete list of target population hard to obtain, may still end up with unrepresentative sample and some selected participants may refuse to take part which then turns random sampling to volunteer sampling

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70
Q

Strength of systematic sampling

A

It’s objective as once the system for the selection is established researcher has no influence over who’s picked

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71
Q

Limitation of systematic sampling

A

Time consuming and participants may refuse to take part

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72
Q

Strength of stratified sampling

A

Method produces a representative sample which reflects target population so generalisations are possible

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73
Q

Limitation of stratified sampling

A

Time consuming and strata don’t represent all ways people differ so not completely representative

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74
Q

opportunity sampling strengths

A

It is convenient and much cheaper and less time consuming as list of target population isn’t needed

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75
Q

Limitations of opportunity sampling

A

Researcher bias may effect results and bias from taking data from just one area so can’t be generalised to whole target population

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76
Q

Volunteer sampling strength

A

It is easy and requires limited input from researcher so less time consuming and volunteers will be more engaged

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77
Q

Limitation of volunteer sampling

A

Volunteer bias as asking volunteers selects a certain profile so findings can’t be generalised to target population

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78
Q

What are ethical issues

A

Arises when conflict exists between researchers need to get valuable info and participants rights

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79
Q

What is informed consent

A

Participants should know what there getting into, it involves making participants aware of the aims, procedures and their rights- including right to withdraw- and what there data is used for. Participants can then decide if they want to continue. But for a research getting informed consent may make their study meaningless due to demand characteristics

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80
Q

What is deception

A

Deliberately misleading or withholding info from participants, if a participant isn’t given adequate info they can’t give informed consent. There are occasions deceptions is ok if it doesn’t cause participant distress

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81
Q

What is protection from harm

A

Participants shouldn’t be placed at more risk than their everyday lives and must be protected from physical and psychological harm-being embarrassed or put under stress. Participants must constantly be reminded they have the right to withdraw

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82
Q

What is privacy and confidentiality

A

Participants have right to control info about themselves- privacy and they have a right to have their personal data protected- confidentiality

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83
Q

What is the BPS code of conduct

A

It includes ethical guidelines and researchers have a professional duty to follow them. They attempt to make sure all participants are treated with respect and consideration during research. They are implemented by ethics committees and are a cost benefit approach to determine if a research proposal is ethically acceptable. It isn’t a legal requirement to follow them but they may lose job if they don’t

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84
Q

How do researchers deal with informed consent

A

Participants should be issued with a consent letter detailing relevant information and the sign it. If participants are under 16 parental consent is required

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85
Q

How do researchers deal with deception

A

At end of study participants are debriefed and participants are told true aims of the study

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86
Q

How do researchers deal with protection from harm

A

Participants should be told they have a right to withdraw and withhold information. Participants should be assured their behaviour was normal and if participants subject to stress or embarrassment researcher should provide counselling

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87
Q

How do researchers deal with confidentiality

A

Researchers must protect any personal details by anonymity. Researchers often used numbers of initials and in debriefing participants reminded their data is protected and won’t be shared with other researchers

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88
Q

What are the three types of consent

A

Presumptive consent, prior general consent and retrospective consent

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89
Q

What’s presumptive consent

A

Similar group of people are asked if they would give consent and if answer is yes then consent is presumed

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90
Q

What is prior general consent

A

Participants give permission to take part in many studies including ones involving deception

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91
Q

What’s retrospective consent

A

Participants asked for consent after the study during debriefing

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92
Q

What is a pilot study

A

A small scale trail run of an actual investigation

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93
Q

What does a pilot study involve

A

Handful of participants to check the procedure and experiment runs smoothly, they can be used for experimental studies, interviews, questionnaires and self reporting studies

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94
Q

Why is a pilot study useful in observational studies

A

Provides a way of checking coding system before real investigation and may be important in training observers

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95
Q

Why are pilot studies useful

A

Allow researchers to identify potential issues and modify the design or procedure saving time and money in the long run

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96
Q

What is a single blind procedure

A

Participants not told which experimental condition they are in and any info that may create expectations isn’t revealed due to demand characteristics

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97
Q

What is double blind procedure

A

Neither participant or researcher is aware of the aims of the investigation

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98
Q

Where are double blind procedures useful

A

In drug trails comparing placebo to the real drug

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99
Q

What is the difference between control and experimental group

A

Control is a baseline study to compare the experimental groups results to. If significant change observed between the 2 we can suggest the IV effects the DV.

100
Q

What is an important non-experimental method of gaining data

A

Observation

101
Q

What are observations

A

Allow researchers to observe behaviour within a natural or controlled setting, it allows flexibility to study more complex interactions between variables. Observations are often used in experiments to assess dependant variable

102
Q

What is a naturalistic observation

A

Takes place where target behaviour would occur, all aspects of environment are free to vary

103
Q

What is a controlled observation

A

Some control over variables including manipulating variables and control of cofounding and extraneous variables

104
Q

What are covert observations

A

Observations where participants are unaware they are the focus of the study and their behaviour is observed in secret. Such behaviour must be public and happening anyway in order to be ethical

105
Q

What are overt observations

A

Participants know their behaviour is being observed and have given informed consent

106
Q

What is participant observation

A

The observer may become part of the group they are studying

107
Q

What is non participant observations

A

Researcher remains separate from the participants

108
Q

What is a strength of observations

A

Capture how people naturally behave, so gives special insight

109
Q

Limitation of observations

A

Observer bias- may be effected by their expectations

110
Q

What is a strength of naturalistic observations

A

High external validity as findings generalised to everyday life as behaviour is studied in same environment where it naturally occurs

111
Q

Limitation of naturalistic observations

A

Lack of control makes replication of the investigation difficult and maybe many cofounding and extraneous variables making it hard to judge behaviour

112
Q

What is a strength and a limitation of controlled observations

A

They may produce findings that can’t be applied to everyday life but they have good control over cofounding and extraneous variables

113
Q

Strength and limitation of covert observations

A

No demand characteristics as don’t know there being observed which gives high internal validity but ethics is a problem as no informed consent

114
Q

Strength and limitation of overt observations

A

They are ethically acceptable but participants know there being observed which may effect their behaviour

115
Q

Strength and limitation of participant observation

A

Research can experience situation as participant does giving them more insight so good external validity but may identify too strongly with the group and lose objectivity - referred to as going native

116
Q

Strength and limitation of non-participant observations

A

Allow researchers to maintain objective psychological distance but may lose valuable insight as they are too far removed from people and behaviour being studied

117
Q

What is unstructured observation

A

Researcher writes down everything they see and produces a lot of detail, may be appropriate in small scale observations

118
Q

What is a structured observation

A

Researcher makes behavioural categories which are the focus of the investigation and makes note when these behaviours observed

119
Q

What are behavioural categories

A

Target behaviours must be broken down into a set of behavioural categories (behaviour checklist), these target behaviours must be precisely defined and made observable and measurable

120
Q

What is continuous recording

A

Every element of the Behaviour is recorded and is a key feature of unstructured observations

121
Q

What is event sampling

A

Involves counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs in a target individual or group

122
Q

What is time sampling

A

Involves recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame

123
Q

Strength and weakness of structured observation

A

Recording data is easier and likely to produce quantitive data, so comparing data is easier, but there is less detailed observations produced

124
Q

Strength and limitation of unstructured observations

A

Produce qualitative data which is harder to analyse but they benefit from more depth detail. But greater risk of researcher bias as there are no behavioural categories, researcher only records certain behaviours which may not be most important

125
Q

What is important of behavioural categories

A

That they are clear and unambiguous, they must be observable, measurable and self-evident so shouldn’t require further interpretation, categories should be exclusive and not overlap

126
Q

When is event sampling useful

A

If event happens infrequently and could be missed by time sampling but specific event is often to complex and important details are overlooked by event sampling

127
Q

When is time sampling effective

A

Reducing number of observations that have to be made but this can lead to under representation of whole observation

128
Q

How do researchers avoid researcher bias

A

To make data objective and unbiased observations should have 2 or more researchers and then this data is compared for consistency

129
Q

What is inter rater reliability

A

When agreement between researchers is measured

130
Q

How should inter rater reliability be carried out

A

Observers must use the same behavioural categories, observers must observe the behaviour at the same time maybe using a pilot study, observers compared data and discuss any differences, observers should analyse the data from the study and inter observer reliability calculated by correlating each pair of observations and overall figure is produced

131
Q

What are questionnaires

A

A self reporting technique involving a list of pre set questions to which a participant responds, used to assess thoughts and feelings, they can also be used in experiments to assess the dependant variable

132
Q

What are open questions

A

Have a wide range of answers and produces qualitative data which can be hard to analyse

133
Q

What are closed questions

A

Offers a fixed range of responses and produces quantitive data which is easy to analyse but lacks depth and detail

134
Q

What are the 3 types of interviews

A

Structured, unstructured, semi-structured

135
Q

What are structured interviews

A

Pre determined set of questions that are asked in fixed order

136
Q

What is an unstructured interview

A

More like a conversation, no set questions, just a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed, interviewee is encouraged to expand answers

137
Q

Semi-structured interviews

A

Pre set list of questions but interviewer can asked follow up questions based on previous answers

138
Q

What is strengths of questionnaires

A

Cost effective as get large amounts of data quickly and completed without researcher present, data from them is easy to analyse especially is questions are closed, data can be statistically analysed and comparisons made using graphs and charts

139
Q

What are limitations of questionnaires

A

Response may not be truthful, called social desirability bias which is a type of demand characteristic, they can produce response bias as limited answers given and questions may be miss read

140
Q

Strength and weakness of structured interview

A

Easy to replicate and difference between interviewers reduced, but limited richness in data collected as interviewer can’t deviate

141
Q

Strength and weakness of unstructured interviews

A

More flexibility and interviewer can get more insight, but may lead to interviewer bias and analysis of data isn’t easy, also risk interviewees may lie for social desirability

142
Q

What are 3 ways of designing questions in a questionnaire

A

Likert scales, rating scales and fixed-choice options

143
Q

What is a likert scale

A

Respondent indicates their agreement with a statement from strongly agree to strongly disagree usually on a 5 point scale

144
Q

What is a rating scale

A

Responding represents a value that shows their feelings to a certain topic

145
Q

What is fixed choice option

A

Items include a list of possible options and respondents tick options that apply to them

146
Q

What is an interview schedule

A

List of questions the interviewer intends to cover, they should be standardised to reduce interviewer bias. The interviewer will take notes during the interview or record it and analyse it later

147
Q

Where may group interviews be appropriate

A

In case of clinical setting

148
Q

How should one on one interviews take place

A

In a quiet room away from people so interviewee is more likely to open up, they should ask a few general questions first to make sure the interviewee is relaxed

149
Q

What is jargon

A

A technical term only familiar to those in a specialised field or area and not understood by ordinary people

150
Q

How should questions in an interview not be worded

A

They should avoid using emotive language and leading questions as it can bias the answers given

151
Q

What are problems with double barrel questions in interviews and questionnaires

A

Respondent may agree with the first half but not the second half

152
Q

What does correlation show

A

The strength and direction of an association between 2 or more co-variables

153
Q

How are correlations plotted

A

On a scattergram, one co-variable represented on x-axis and other on the y-axis

154
Q

What is a positive correlation

A

A positive correlation means as the x axis value increases they y axis value also increases

155
Q

What is a negative correlation

A

As the y axis decreases the x axis increases

156
Q

What is zero correlation

A

There is no pattern between the two observed variables

157
Q

In an experiment what does the researcher control and manipulate

A

IV in order to measure its effect on the dependant variable

158
Q

How is correlation different from an experiment

A

There is no manipulation of one variable and so cause and effect between one co-variable and another can’t be measured

159
Q

What are strengths of correlations

A

Useful preliminary research tool, they provide a quantifiable measure of how 2 variables are related, correlations are quick and easy to carry out, no need for controlled environment and can be done using secondary data so it’s economical

160
Q

What are limitations of correlations

A

Lack of experimental manipulation and control within a correlation means it doesn’t tell us why variables are related, also third variable problem where a cofounding variable may be causing the correlation, correlations can be misinterpreted- positive correlation interpreted as definite facts when it may not be true due to third variable problems

161
Q

What is qualitative data

A

Data in words such as written description of thoughts and feelings and opinions of participant, interviews or notes from counselling sessions are qualitative data, can be collected by interview or unstructured observation

162
Q

What is quantitive data

A

Expressed numerically from individual scores, data can be statistically analysed and easily converted into graphs

163
Q

Is qualitative or quantitative data better

A

Both have their advantages and qualitative data can also be converted into quantitive data

164
Q

What is primary data

A

Original data that has been collected for the purpose of the investigation by researcher, its first hand data and gathered by questionnaire, interview or observation

165
Q

What is secondary data

A

Data collected by someone other than the person conducting research, data already exists as researcher starts their experiment, this data can be subject to statistics testing so it’s significance is known, this data includes journal articles, books or websites or info held by the government

166
Q

What is a strength of qualitative data

A

Offer lots of detail and allows participants to fully explain their thoughts so had high external validity and gives meaningful insight

167
Q

Limitations of qualitative data

A

Difficult to analyse and comparisons are hard to make so conclusions rely on subjective interpretations

168
Q

Strength and weakness of quantitive date

A

Simple to analyse and easy comparisons and more objective so less open to bias, but data much narrower in detail

169
Q

Strength of primary data

A

It is obtained from participants themselves for a particular investigation so the target the specific info needed

170
Q

Weakness of primary data

A

But it requires time and effort as a whole experiment must be planned and organised

171
Q

Secondary data strength and weakness

A

It is cheap and requires minimal effort as no need to conduct primary data but there may be lower quality and accuracy and the info may be outdated or incomplete and this may challenge the validity of conclusions made by the researcher

172
Q

What is meta analysis

A

Combining findings from number of studies in certain topic to produce an overall conclusion

173
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

Use of graphs tables and summary stats to identify trends and analyse data sets

174
Q

What is descriptive statistics

A

Includes measure of central tendency, the numbers are averages which give us the most typical value in a data set

175
Q

What are the 3 descriptive statistics

A

Mean median mode

176
Q

What is the mean

A

Calculated by adding all the scores in a data set and diving by total number of items

177
Q

What is median

A

The middle value when data scores are arranged from lowest to highest.

178
Q

Mean strength and weakness

A

It is representative as it includes all the numbers but it is easily distorted by extreme values

179
Q

Median strength and limitation

A

Extreme scores don’t effect it and easy to calculate, but less sensitive than mean so important extreme values are ignored

180
Q

What is mode

A

Most frequently occurring number within a data set

181
Q

Strength and limitation of mode

A

It is easy to calculate but not representative of the whole data set

182
Q

When would you use mode

A

Asking a class their favourite dessert as you could only find a model group to work out the most popular

183
Q

What is measures of dispersion

A

Based on spread of scores, how far scores vary from one and other

184
Q

What are the 2 measures of dispersion

A

Range and standard deviation

185
Q

What is range

A

Range is calculated by subtracting the lowest from highest value and adding 1

186
Q

Why do you add 1 when calculating range

A

It is a mathematical correlation that allows that raw scores are often rounded up or down when data was recorded

187
Q

Strength and limitation of range

A

It is easy to calculate but it only takes into account the 2 most extreme values and this may be unrepresentative of the data set as a whole

188
Q

What is standard deviation

A

This single value tells us how far scores deviate from the mean, the larger standard deviation the larger the dispersion within a data set

189
Q

What does a large standard deviation in an experiment suggest

A

Not all participants effected by the IV in the same way as the data is widely spread or that there are a few anonymous results

190
Q

What does low standard deviation mean

A

Data is all close to the mean so participants responded to IV in a similar way

191
Q

Strength and weakness of standard deviation

A

Much more precise way of measuring dispersion but it can be distorted by single extreme values

192
Q

What are the 4 ways to represent data

A

Summary in table, bar chart, histogram, scattergram

193
Q

What is summarising data in table

A

A summary table doesn’t have the raw scores from the researcher but contains values after being converted into descriptive statistics. In summary tables a summary paragraph should also be there comparing the results in the table

194
Q

What are bar charts

A

Bar charts are a graph which can plot the mean values in different data sets. They are used when data is divided into categories (discrete data). In bar charts each separate bar doesn’t touch

195
Q

What is discrete data

A

Data divided into categories

196
Q

What is a histogram

A

Bars touch each other so data is continuous rather than discrete. X axis has equal sized intervals and y axis shows frequency within each interval

197
Q

What is a scattergram

A

This graph doesn’t show differences but associations between co-variables and each point responds to both co-variables- one on x axis and one on y axis

198
Q

What is normal distribution

A

When you measure something like height a bell shape curve should form that is symmetrical and this is normal distribution- a cluster of values at the mean and less frequent extreme values on either side

199
Q

Within normal distribution where would mean median and mode lie

A

In the centre with the highest cluster

200
Q

Why does normal distribution never touch 0 on x axis

A

As extreme scores are always theoretical possible

201
Q

What is skewed distribution

A

Not all data sets form a symmetrical pattern, distributions may lean to one side or the other

202
Q

What is a positive skew

A

Most of the distribution is to the left, for example in a hard test if most people got low scores and a few got high scores we would see a positive skew

203
Q

How can different measures of central tendency’s effect positive skew

A

Mode would be the highest point of the peak, median would be closer to the left but more right of the mode, and mean would be closer to the right as it is effected by extreme values

204
Q

What is a negative skew

A

Bulk of scores are concentrated on the right hand side so the mean is pulled to the left, median in the middle and mode on the right

205
Q

How do you calculate percentage from two data sets

A

Final value/total value x100=%

206
Q

How do you convert a percentage to a decimal

A

Divide the percentage by 100 and it becomes a decimal

207
Q

What does decimal places mean

A

The number of digits to the right of the decimal point

208
Q

How do you convert a decimal to a fraction

A

If there are 2 decimal place then you divide by 100 to get a fraction and it there are 3 decimal place you divide by 1000 to get a fraction

209
Q

How can you make a large fraction smaller

A

Finding the highest common factor, which is the biggest number that divides evenly into both parts of the fraction

210
Q

How do we express values as ratios

A

Each value either side of a colon, 3:1, ratio should always be simplified by finding highest common factor

211
Q

What are estimates

A

You round numbers up or down to a certain significant figure in order to find the rough value

212
Q

What is 432,765 to 2 significant figures

A

430,000

213
Q

When do we use significant figures

A

When there are long numbers we may round it off to make an estimate

214
Q

What is standard form

A

It is short hand to express very large numbers or very small numbers

215
Q

What is standard form formula

A

Number between 1-10 x 10 to the power of…

216
Q

What is the number between 1 and 10 Called in standard form and what is the power if 10 called

A

Mantissa and power of 10 is called exponent

217
Q

What is order of magnitude calculations

A

Another kind of estimate using standard form and comparing exponents, so you can say how many times bigger or smaller a number is to another

218
Q

What does this sign mean >

A

Strict inequality-greater than

219
Q

What does this sign( < )means

A

Strict inequality-less than

220
Q

What does this sign mean&raquo_space;

A

Inequality-much greater than

221
Q

What does this sign (

A

Inequality-much less than.

222
Q

What does this sign mean ∝

A

Proportional to

223
Q

what does this mean ≈

A

Approximately equal-weak approximation

224
Q

What is the concept of significance

A

If we find a difference in the mean value of two data sets how do we know if it is significant or not, the difference may be no more than chance so to find this out we use statistical testing

225
Q

What is the sign test

A

It determines if sets of data have a significant difference. 1.look at the differences not associations 2.must use repeated measures design
3.must organise data into categories known as nominal data

226
Q

What is nominal data

A

Organised data into categories

227
Q

What is probability

A

Refers to likelihood that a certain event will occur

228
Q

What is the null hypothesis

A

States there is no difference in the data sets, if we find a statistically significant difference we can reject the null hypothesis

229
Q

What is the accepted level of probability

A

0.05(5%) after this there is a significant difference between 2 data sets and rejects null hypothesis

230
Q

When may a stricter significance level be used like 0.01(1%)

A

In case of human cost like new drug trails or on a one off investigation

231
Q

Why do psychologists only suggest rather than prove when finding statistically significant differences within data

A

They can never find statistical certainties so in the absence of proof and certainty they decided 5% is sufficient

232
Q

What is the calculate value

A

When statistical test done research is left with a number known as calculated value

233
Q

What must be done with the calculate value

A

Compare it to the critical value to determine if it’s significant or not

234
Q

What is a critical value table

A

A table with all the critical values

235
Q

What information do you need to use a table of critical values

A
  1. Significance level (0.05)
  2. number of participants in investigation
  3. whether hypothesis is directional(one tailed) to non-directional (two tailed)
236
Q

How do you complete the sign test

A
  1. convert data to nominal data by working out which scores went up and which went down (subtract control from experimental scores)
  2. add up the plus signs and add up the minus signs
  3. we take the less frequent sign and call it S
  4. Then look at the critical value table and if S is equal to or less than critical value there is a statistically significant difference
237
Q

What is peer review

A

Before a piece of research can become public it must be peer reviewed, it involves all aspects of written investigation being scrutinised by a small group of 2 or 3 experts in a certain field, these experts should be objective and unknown by author/researcher

238
Q

What are the main aims of peer review

A
  1. allocate research funding-can be done to decide whether to fund them or not such as in medical research
  2. validate quality and relevance of research-all elements assessed for quality and accuracy
  3. suggest amendments or improvements-reviewers suggest minor improvements to improve the report
239
Q

Why are peer reviews important

A

In establishing validity and accuracy of the research

240
Q

What is anonymity in evaluation of peer reviews

A

The peer must remain anonymous through to be able to give a more honest opinion, but a minority of reviewers may use this to criticise rival researchers

241
Q

What is publication bias in evaluation of peer review

A

It’s a natural tendency for editors to publish significant findings to increase credibility of their publication and publish positive results which could mean research not meeting this criteria is ignored which creates a false impression of currant state of psychology if researchers are being selective

242
Q

What is burying groundbreaking research in evaluation of peer review

A

Peer review may suppress opposition, reviewers are very critical if it opposes their own view, established scientists are likely to be reviewers and then will often pass over new and innovative research so peer reviews may slow down the rate of change

243
Q

What is meant by implication of economy in psychology

A

How does what we learn from our findings of psychological research influence, affect, benefit or devalue our financial prosperity

244
Q

How does attachment research into role of the father have economical implications

A

Research found both parents cable of looking after the child and providing to all its needs which allowed flexible working arrangements within the family. Eg, it’s norm now that if mother is the highest payed she will go back to work or couples share childcare responsibilities which means modern parents better equipped to maximise their income and contribute more effectively to the economy

245
Q

How has development of treatments for mental disorders had economic implications

A

Absence from work costs a lot of money and it was found that 1/3 of absences were caused by depression, stress and anxiety, treatments for mental disorders mean these people can return to work and promotes a healthy workforce. Many treatments are psychotherapeutic drugs like SSRIs or anti anxiety drugs or systematic desensitisation or CBT. This means people with mental disorders can manage their condition effectively and return to work so the economy benefits from psychological research into mental disorders

Psychology (12 decks)

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