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Relatioships Flashcards

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1
Q

What is social exchange theory by Thibault and Kelly

A

Claimed behaviour in a relationship reflects the economic assumptions of exchange, they say we try to minimise losses and maximise gains, we judge our satisfaction with a relationship in terms of profit if yields, defined as rewards minus the costs

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2
Q

how is social exchange theory subjective

A

what may be considered a big reward for someone may be seen as less valuable to another person

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3
Q

what is an example of social exchange theory being subjective

A

you may consider recieving praise from your partner as valuavble but it may not bother your partner to be praised

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4
Q

what may haapen to value of rewards and costs over a relationship

A

they may change over time

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5
Q

in social exchange theory was is a reward

A

beneficial things like companionship, sex, emotional support

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6
Q

in social exchange theory was is a cost

A

relationships can involve negative emotions and includes time, stress, energy, compromise, and there may also be econmoic costs to relationships

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7
Q

what are the 2 ways social exchange theory measures profit in a romantic relationship

A

the comparison level and the comparison level for alternatives

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8
Q

what is the comparison level

A

the amount of reward you believe you deserve to get, it develops from our experiences from previous relationships which feed into our current one, its also influenced by social norms within a culture (reflected in books, TV, films), our comparison level develops as we get more data to set in by

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9
Q

when do we consider a relationship worth pursuing in comparison level

A

if our comparison level is high, due to links with self-esteem. someone with low self esteem is happy with small profits, someone w high self esteem will was large profits to continue a relationship

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10
Q

what is comparison for alternatives

A

provides a wider context for our current relationship, we only stay in a relationship if we believe we can’t get greater rewards and fewer costs elsewhere

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11
Q

what did Duck say about comparison level for alternatives

A

comparison level for alternatives we adopt depends on the state of our current relationship, if the cost of our relationship outweighs rewards then alternatives become more attractive

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12
Q

What was the final feature of Thibault and Kelly social exchange theory

A

4 stages to which relationship develops

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13
Q

according to Thibault and Kelly what were 4 stages of relationship development

A

sampling stage, bargaining stage, commitment stage, institutionalisation stage

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14
Q

what is sampling stage according to Thibault and Kelly

A

we explore rewards and costs of social exchange by experimenting with them in our own relationship, or by observing others doing so

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15
Q

what is the bargaining stage according to Thibault and Kelly

A

marks beginning of a relationship, when romantic partners start exchanging various rewards and costs, negotiating and identifying what’s most profitable

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16
Q

what is the commitment stage according to Thibault and Kelly

A

as time goes on, sources of cost and rewards become more predictable and relationships becomes more stable as rewards increase and costs lessen

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17
Q

what is the institutionalisation stage according to Thibault and Kelly

A

partners now settled down as the norms of the relationship, in terms of cost and rewards, is established

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18
Q

what is a strength of social exchange theory

A

support for aspects of SET from research studies. Kurdek asked gay, lesbian and heterosexual couples to complete a questionaire measuring relationship commitment and SET variables. He found those who were most commited percieved the most rewards and fewest costs and viewed alternatives as relatively unattractive. These findings match predicitions from SET, strongly confirming the validity of the theory in gay and lesbian couples as well as heterosexual couples.

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19
Q

what is a counterpoint of social exchange theory

A

Studies into SET ignore a crucial factor that may be an over-whelming consideration for romantic partners which is equity. Equity theory may be a better explanation for romantic relationship instead of SET. There is alot of researching supporting the role of equity in relationships. What matters is not just rewards v costs but the partners preception of that is fair. The neglect of equity means SET is a limited explanation for reomantic relationships.

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20
Q

what is a limitation of social exchange theory

A

SET claims that dissatisfaction arises only after a relationship stops being profitable. According to SET, we become dissatified when we conclude costs outweigh rewards of a relationship. But Argyle argued we don’t monitor costs and rewards or consider alternatives until we’re dissatisfied. When were statified we don’t even notic other alternatives. This suggests that considering costs/alternatives is caussed by dissatification rather than the opposite.

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21
Q

what is another limitation of social exchange theory

A

SET deals in concepts that are vague and hard to quantify. Rewards and costs have been defined superficially in research in order to measure them. But realm world rewards and costs are subjective and hard to define. For example, having loyality is a rewards for most people but not for everyone. It is unclear what the values of comparison level or comparison level for alternatives must be before dissatification threatens a relationship. This means the theory is difficult to test in a valid way.

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22
Q

What is equity theory

A

Another economic theory which developed in response to a significant criticism of social exchange theory. Maximising rewards and minimising costs are important, but SET fails to take into account the need most people have for balance rather than profit in a relationship

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23
Q

According to Walster et al what matters most with equity

A

Both partners level of profit (rewards minus cost) is almost the same.

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24
Q

What happens when there is a lack of equity

A

1 partner overbenefits and other underbenefits from the relationship and this causes dissatisfaction and unhappiness according to equity theory

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25
Q

What feeling may the under benefiting partner have in equity theory

A

Anger, hostility, resentment, humiliation

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26
Q

What feeling may the over benefiting partner have in equity theory

A

Guilt, discomfort, shame. So satification is about perceived fairness

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27
Q

According to equity theory instead of the size/amount of rewards and costs what is important

A

The ratio the rewards and costs to each other, so if one partner puts a lot into the relationship but at the same time gets a lot out, are then likely to be satisfied

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28
Q

What are satisfying relationships marked by

A

Negotiations to ensure equality, that rewards are distributed fairly between partners. This inevitably involves making trade-offs

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29
Q

When do problems arise in a relationship in equity theory

A

When they put a great deal in the relationship but gets little out of it, partner who perceives inequality will be dissatisfied and distressed if it continues for a long time

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30
Q

What does the greater perceived inequity

A

Greater dissatfiicajton, equality theory predicts a strong correlation between the 2, applies to both over and under benefitters

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31
Q

what makes us most dissatfied in a relationship according to equity theory

A

a change in percieved equality as time goes on

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32
Q

what is an examples of a change in percieved equity as time goes on

A

at start it may feel normal to contribute more than you receive, but if relationship continues with you putting in lots and getting little back it will lead to dissatification

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33
Q

how do underbenefiting partners deal with relationship according to equity theory in a behavioural way

A

they try and make relationships more equitable as long as its possible to do so, more unfair a relationship feels the harder they will work

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34
Q

how do underbenefiting partners deal with relationships according to equity theory in a cognitive way

A

they revise their perceptions of rewards and costs so relationship feels more equitable even if nothing changes, what once seemed a cost is now percieved as a norm.

35
Q

what is a strength of equity theory

A

evidence from studies of real-world relationships confirm equity theory is more valid than SET. For example, Utne et al carried out a survery of 118 recently married couples, measuring ewuity with self-report scales. Researchers found partners who percieved there relationship as equitable were more statisfied than those who thought they were under or overbenefiting. This confirms equity is a major concern for romantic couples and is linked with satisfaction

36
Q

what is a counterpoint of equity theory

A

equity may be a feature of satisfaction in relationships but Berg et al found euity did not increase over time which is predicted by this theory, nor did researchers find that relationships that ended or stayed together was due to equity. Other variables like seld-disclosure were more important. This undermines the validity of equity theory as equity doesn’t play the role is relationship satisfaction predicted by equity theory.

37
Q

what is a limitation of equity theory

A

equity thoery may not apply to all cultures. Aumer-ryan et al found cultural differences in the links between equity and satisfaction. Couples from individualist cultures considered a more equitable relationship as more satisfying, but in collectivist cultures they were more satisfied when they were overbenefiting and true for both men and women. This suggests the theory is limited as it only applies to some cultures.

38
Q

what is another limitation of equity theory

A

not all partners in romantic relationships are concerned about equity. Huseman et al suggest some people are less concerned about equity than the norm. Some partners are benevolents (underbenefiters). Others are entitled (overbenefiters with no guilt). In both cases these individuals are less concerned with equity than the theory predicts. This shows a desire for equity varies from one individual to the next and is not a universal feature of romantic relationships.

39
Q

What was rusbult’s investment model

A

he saod commitment depends on 3 factors, as it is a development on social exchange theory 2 factors are satisfaction and comparison to alternatives, 3rd factor is investment

40
Q

what is facotr 1: satisfaction in rubults investment model

A

satisfaction is based on the concept of comparion level, a satisfying relationship is jydged by comparoing rewards amd costs, and seen profitiable if many rewards and few costs, each partner is satisfied when they get more out a relationship than thought based on social norms or previous relationships

41
Q

What is factor 2:comparison with alternatives

A

it includes considering having a relationship with another person or no relationship at all and if this will be more satisfuying

42
Q

what is factor 3: investment

A

an investment is anything we would lose if the relationship were to end

43
Q

what did rubult say were the 2 major investment types

A

intrinsic and extrinsic investments

44
Q

what is an intrinsic inveestment

A

any resources we put directly into a relationship, they can be tangible like money or intangiable like self-disclosure

45
Q

what is extrinsic investment

A

resources that were not there a the start of relationship but now are contributed to by both partners such as a car or mutaul memories

46
Q

what is the optimum condition of a relationship to succeed according to rubult

A

if partners have high level of satisfaction and alternaitves are less attractive and investment size is increaswing partners will be commited to the relationship

47
Q

Why is it animportant distinction that rubult argued commitment is main factor causing people to stay in relationship and satisfaction is a contributory factor

A

it can help to explain why disatisfied [artners may choose to stay in a relationship (as they are commited to their partner as they have made an investement that they don’t want to waste) so they will work hard to maintsin and repair a damaged relationship

48
Q

according to rubult what is accomadation as a relationship maintenance mechanism

A

they wont relaliate but instead promote the relationship

49
Q

according to rubult what is wilingness to sacrfice as a relationship maintenance mechanism

A

put their partners needs first

50
Q

according to rubult what is forgiveness as a relationship maintenance mechanism

A

forgguve them for serious transgressions

51
Q

what are cognitive elements to a relationship maintenance and repair

A

unrealistically positve about their partner, negative about other peoples relationship

52
Q

what is a strength of rubults investment model

A

support from a meta analysis by Le et al. 52 studies were reviewed and it was found that satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investement size all predict relationship commitment. Where commotment was greatest were the most stable and long lasting. These findings were true across all cultures and homosexual and heterosexual relationships. This suggests there is validity to Rubults claims

53
Q

what is a counterpoint of rubults investment model

A

strong correlationships have been found between all important factors predicted by investment model. E.g. most of Le et al meta analysis studies were correlational. But, correlational stories don’t allow to conclude the factors identified caused commitment in a relationship. Therefore, it is not clear that the model has identified the causes of commitment rather than factors associated with it.

54
Q

what is a another strength of rubults investment model

A

The model is an explanation of relationships involving inmate partner violence (abusove relationships). Rusbult and Martz studied domestically abused women at a shelter and found those most likely to return to an abusive partner were those who made greatest investments and had few attractions to alternatives. They were dissatsfied but still committed. Therefore, the model shows that satisfaction on its own cannot explain why people stay in a relationship, commitement and investment are also important factors.

54
Q

what is a another strength of rubults investment model

A

The model is an explanation of relationships involving inmate partner violence (abusove relationships). Rusbult and Martz studied domestically abused women at a shelter and found those most likely to return to an abusive partner were those who made greatest investments and had few attractions to alternatives. They were dissatsfied but still committed. Therefore, the model shows that satisfaction on its own cannot explain why people stay in a relationship, commitement and investment are also important factors.

55
Q

what is a limitation of rubults investment model

A

It views investment in a 1D way. Goodfriend et al said there is more to investment than just the resources you have already put into a relationship. In early stages partners may not make any good investements, however, Goodfriend et al extend the model to include iinvetsment in future plans. They are commited as they want to see their future plans be carried out. Therefore, original model is too simplisitc as it fails to undertsand the complexity of investement.

56
Q

What di Duck’s phase model of relationship argue

A

ending a relationship is not 1 phase but a process that takes time and goes through 4 distinct phases, each phase is marked by 1 or both partners reaching a threshold, where their perception of the relationship has changed, the road to breakup begins when partner relasises they’re dissatisfied with relationship and way things are going

57
Q

what are Duck’s 4 phases of a break up

A

intra-psychic phase, dyadic phase, social phase, grave dressing phase

58
Q

what is intra-psychic phase according to Duck

A

focus on this phase is cognitive processes occuring within the individual. Dissatified partner worries about reasons for their dissatisfaction, centering around partners shortcomings. They weight up pros and cons of relationship and whether thery’ll be more satisfied elsewhere. Then begin to plan for the future

59
Q

what is dyadic phase according to Duck

A

interpersonal processes between 2 partners. Can no longer avoid not talking about the relationship and its dissatification. This may cause anxiety, hostility, resentment. 2 outcomes:continue to break up or try fix relationship. But if resure fails, another threshold is reached. More self-disclosure in this phase than intra-psychic

60
Q

what is social phase according to Duck

A

wider processes of couples social network. Break up made public and partners seek mutual friends who will pick sides, gossip is encouraged. Some friends provide reassurance, some blame other partner and some give previosly secret info about thought on their relationship and some may try and repair the relationship, usually this phase is the point of no return

61
Q

what is grave dressing phase according to Duck

A

focus on aftermath, when relationship is dead it is buried by having a favourable story abuot the break up for public consummption. This allows partner to save their reputation usually by ruinnig their other partners, gossip is a big part of this phase. Partner will try a keep social credit by blaming circumstances or their parnter. This phase also envolves creating a personal stroy you can live with (may differ from public one). Many now see you’re relationshhip in negative light. Partner reaches threshold and decides its time to move on

62
Q

what is a strength of duck’s phase model

A

Suggedsts way in which relationship breaksdown can be revered. It recognises different repair strategies are more effective at some points in the breakdown than others. E.g. Duck recommended in intra-psychic phase people could worry about positive aspects of their partner and in dyadic phase communication is important to stabalse the relationship. This has useful real-world apllication for relationship counselling

63
Q

what is a counterpoint of duck’s phase model

A

Model based on research into relationships in individuallist cultures, mostly US. Moghaddam et al relationships in indiviudallist cultures frequently come and endbut in collectivist cultures they are less easy to end and involve wider family. This means Duck’s model is not useful when appkying it to other cultures.

64
Q

what is a limitation of duck’s phase model

A

It is an incomplpete explanation of a breakdown. Duck and Rollie added a 5th phase after grave dressing, the resurrection phase. Partners apply experience gained from failed relationship to new relationship. Researchers argued progression from 1 to next phase is not inevitable as people may return to an earlier point in any phase. Moreover, the processes that occur in each phase are more importaant than moving on from each phase. Therefore, oringinal model doesn’t account for complexity of breakdown and its dynamic nature.

65
Q

what is another limtation of duck’s phase model

A

It under explains the early stages of a break up. Much research is retrospective, so theur accuracy of recalling the start of a break up is less reliable. Participants can be in intra-psychic phase for a while so recall may be very disorted an inaccurate. This means Duck’s model may not explain ealry parts of a relationship as well as the later phases of a relationship.

66
Q

what is reduced cues theory in virtual relationships

A

Sproull and Kiesler said voruel relationshipsare less effective than face to face relationships as they lack many cues we depend on in face to face relationships

67
Q

what are examples of cues we use in face to face relationships

A

nonverbal cues like our physical apperance and cues to our emotional state (facial expression, tone of voice)

68
Q

what does reduced cues theory suggest about virtuel relationships

A

lack of cues reduces a person’s sense of individual identity in virtual relationships (de-individuation) which leads to disinhibition, many people feel free to communicate in blunt and agressive ways online, so people less likely to share feelinigns with them, even if not like that in real life

69
Q

what is hyperpersonal model in virtuel relationships

A

Walther said virtuel relationships can be more personal and involve greater self disclosure than face to face ones as virtuel relationships develop self-disclosure very quickly and once established they are more intimate

70
Q

what are the 1st of the 2 key features of hyperpersonal self-disclosure in virtuel relationships

A
  1. sender of message has more control over what to disclose and cues they send than face to face relationship, this is selective self-presentation (sender manipulates their self image to present themselves in idealised way, to achieve this, self disclosure can be intensly truful (hyperhonest) or intensly false (hyperdishonest)
71
Q

what are the 2nd of the 2 key features of hyperpersonal self-disclosure in virtuel relationships

A
  1. reciever gains positive impression of sender, may give feedback that reinforces senders selective self-presentation
72
Q

how is anonymity another factor that promotes self-disclosure and makes relationships hyperpersonal

A

Bargh et al said outcome of anonymity is when youre aware the other person doesn’t know you’re identify, you feel less accountable for you’re behaviour, so you disclose more

73
Q

what is a gate in terms of relationship

A

any obstacle to forming a relationship

74
Q

how are face to face interactions gated

A

involves many features that interfere with early development of relationship

75
Q

whar are examples of gates in relationships according to McKenna et al

A

physical unattractiveness, facial disfigurement, stammer, social anxiety

76
Q

what does it mean that gates are absent in virtuel relationships

A

virtuel relationship can develop to a point where self disclosure becomes deeper, relationship more likely to get off the ground, absence of gating in virtuel relationship works as more focused on self disclosure and less on distracting features

77
Q

what are benefits of gates being absent in virtuel relationship

A

individual is freed to be more like themselves

78
Q

what are drawbacks of gates being absent in virtuel relationship

A

people create untrue identites and decieve people with isn’t possible face to face

79
Q

what is a limitation of reduced cues theory

A

online nonverbal cues are different not absent. Walther et al said people online use other cues like style and time of messages including time it takes to reply to a message. There are cues in virtuel relationships just more subtle than in face to face relationships. Acronyms and emojis can be used as subsititue for facial expression and tone of voice. This is not explain by reduced cues theory, this suggests virtuel relationships can be just as personal as face to face ones

80
Q

what is limitation of hyperpersonal model

A

challenged by meta analysis findings. Ruppel et al did meta analysis of 25 studies comparing self-disclosure in face to face and virtuel interactions. They found frequency, breapth and depth of self-disclosure were all higher in face to face relationships. One other study found no difference between the 2 relationships in terms of self-disclosure. This contradicts hyperersonal model that virtuel relationships have more self-disclosure.

81
Q

what is a counterpoint of parasocial relationships

A

Some evidence against attachemnt type being universal explanation for parasocial relationships. McCutcheon et al measured attachment type and celebrity-related attitudes in 299 americain participants and found attachment security did not affect likelihood of forming paranormal relationship with celebrity. This shows parasocial relationships not necessarily a way for compensating for attachment issues

82
Q

what is a strength of virtual relationships

A

shy, lonley and anxious people find virtuel relationships especially valuable. Bargh et al looked at online communication of shy, lonley and anxious poeple and found these people could express their true self more than in ftf situations. Of romantic relationships formed with shy people online 71% survived atleast 2 years compared to 49% offline. This suggests shy people benefit online as gating that obstructs ftf relationships is absent.

Psychology (12 decks)

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