Forensic Psychology Flashcards
What is offender profiling
An investigative tool employed by the police when solving crimes, main aim of which is to narrow likely suspect list, profilers help police in murder cases
How does offender profiling work
Methods vary but usually involves scrutiny of crime scene and analysis of evidence in order to generate hypothesis about probable characteristics of the offender
What is the top down approach
American approach used by FBI, FBI behavioural scientists gathered in depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated murders including Bundy and Manson. Concluded data could be categorised into organised and disorganised crimes
What is organised disorganised distinction based on
Idea that serous offenders have a modus operandi and this correlates with social and psychological characteristics that relate to individual
What are organised offenders
Planned crime in advanced, victim is deliberately targeted and they have a type. They maintain high degree of control, little evidence left behind, above average intelligence, skilled professional occupation, socially and sexually competent, married with kids
What is a disorganised offender
Little evidence of planning, spontaneous, body left at scene and little control, lower IQ, unskilled or unemployed, history of sexual dysfunction and failed relationships, live alone close to offence
What are the 4 main stages in conducting FBI profile
1.data assimilation-profiler reviews crime scene photos, pathology and witness reports 2.crime scene declassification-organised to disorganised 3.crime reconstruction-hypothesis of sequenced events 4.profile generation- hypothesis related to likely offenders
What is a strength of top down approach
Support for organised offenders. Canter tested organised disorganised typology of 100 murders committed by different serial killers. Used analysis called smallest space analysis-statistical technique identifies correlations across different samples of behaviour. Analysis used to assess co-occurrence of 39 serial killing aspects including torture, restraint, conceal body, weapon used and cause of death. Analysis revealed a subset of features that many serial killers matched organised typology. Suggests key component to FBI typology has validity
What is counterpoint of top down approach
Many studies show organised disorganised aren’t mutually exclusive. Variety of combinations that occur at any given murder scene. Eg. Godwin argues it’s difficult to class serial killers as one or other type. Killer may have high IQ and sexual competence but commits spontaneous murder. Suggests organised disorganised typology is more of a continuum
What is another strength of top down approach
Can be adapted to other crimes like burglary. Meketa reports top down profiling been applied to burglary and seen 85% rise in solved cases. Detection method uses organised disorganised typology but also adds interpersonal (knows victim), opportunistic (inexperienced young offender). Suggests top down profiling has wide application
What is a limitation of top down approach
Based on flawed evidence. Developed using interviews with 36 murders in US, 25 who were serial killers. 24 individual classified as organised and 12 disorganised. Canter et al argued sample was poor as it wasn’t random or large sample of varied crimes. No standard set of interview questions either so not comparable. Suggests top down doesn’t have scientific basis
What is the aim of bottom up approach
Generate picture of offender, their likely characteristics, routine behaviour and social background through systematic analysis of crime scene evidence, profile is data driven as profiler goes into greater detail of crime scene details
What is investigative psychology
Attempt to apply statistical procedures, with psychological theory to the analysis of crime scene evidence
What is aim of investigative psychology
Establish patterns of behaviour that are likely to occur across crime scenes to develop a statistical database which then acts as baseline for comparison, specific details of crime can then be matched against to reveal important details about offenders history and family background and determines if series of events committed by 1 person
What are 3 elements to investigate psychology
Interpersonal coherence, significance of place and time, forensic awareness
What is interpersonal coherence
Way offender behaves at scene, interact with victim, eg. If rapist humiliated victim or was apologetic may explain how they relate to women
What is significance of time and place
May indicate where offender is living
What is forensic awareness
Individuals who have been subject of police interrogation before, their behaviour may suggests how Careful they are to cover their tracks
What is geographical profiling
Uses info about location of linked crime scenes to make inferences about home/operation base of offender (crime mapping) and based on principle of spatial consistency (people commit crimes in limited geographical space). Creates hypothese of offenders modus operandi and thinking
WhT are geographical profiling assumptions
Serial killers restrict their work to familiar geographical areas and so spatial pattern provide profilers with centre of gravity including offenders base
How is geographical profiling the basis of canters circle theory
Pattern of offending forms a circle around offenders home base
What are the 2 ways geographical profiling describes offenders
Marauder(operates close to their home), commuter (travelled from their usual residence)
What can spatial decision making offer
Investigative team insight into nature of offence, planned or opportunistic, mental maps, mode of transport, employment status and age
Strength of bottom up approach
Support for investigative psychology. Canter and Heritage conducted analysis of 66 sexual assaults using smallest space analysis. Several behaviours identified as common in different samples like use of impersonal language and lack of reaction to victim. Can help establish if crime committed by same/different person. Supports basic principle of investigative psychology that people consistent in behaviour
What is counterpoint of bottom up approach
Case linkage depends on database and only consists of historical crimes which have been solved. They were solved so maybe they were straightforward to link crimes in first place making circular argument. Suggests investigative psychology tells us little about crimes that have few links and remain unsolved
What is another strength of bottom up approach
Evidence to support geographical profiling. Lundigan and Canter got info from 120 serial killing murder cases using small space analysis it revealed spatial consistency in killers behaviour. Location of each body site created centre of gravity as offender goes different direction each time crime committed. Offenders base can be located in centre of all crime scenes, effect more noticeable for marauders. Supports view that geographical info can be used to identify offenders
What is limitation of bottom up approach
Geographical profiling may not be sufficient on its own. Same for investigative psychology, success of geographical profiling reliant on quality of data that police provide. Recording of crime not always accurate, can vary between police forces and 75% crimes not even reported to police. So even if info correct other factors may be more important in building a profile like timing of offence and age/experience of offender. Suggests geographical info alone doesn’t always lead to successful capture of offender
Who was Eysenck
Important figure in personality and intelligence research, proposed behaviour represented along 2 dimensions
What were Eysenck 2 dimensions and what was the 3rd added later
Introversion-extraversion(E), neuroticism-stability(N), they combine to form variety of personality traits, later added psychoticism-sociability(P)
What is Eysenck say about our personality traits
They are biological in origin and come through type of nervous system we inherit, so all personality types including criminal ones have biological basis
What are extraverts
Have an underactive nervous system so constantly seek excitement, stimulation and engage in risk taking activities, don’t condition easily so don’t learn from their mistakes
What is neurotic
Individuals have high levels of reactivity in sympathetic nervous system, they respond quickly to situations of threat meaning they’re nervous, jumpy and overanxious and instability means behaviour difficult to predict
What is a psychotic person
Have higher levels of testosterone, unemotional and prone to aggression
What is the criminal personality in Eysenck theory
Type of neurotic-extravert-psychotic. Neurotics are unstable and prone to overreact in threat situations, extraverts seek more arousal so engage in dangerous activities. Psychotics are aggressive and lack empathy
What did Eysenck say socialisation processes were
The link between personality and offending behaviour
How did Eysenck see offending behaviour
Developmentally immature, selfish and concerned with Immediate gratification, offenders impatient and can’t wait for things
What is the process of socialisation
Children taught to be able to delay gratification and be more socially orientated
What did Eysenck believe people with high E and N scores had
Hard nervous systems to condition so they are less likely to learn anxiety responses to antisocial impulses and more likely to act antisocial in situations where opportunity presents itself
What is central to Eysenck theory and why
Personality can be measured, important as enabled him to conduct research relating personality variables to behaviours like criminality
What did Eysenck develop and what is it
Eysenck personality questionnaire (EPQ), psychological test which locates respondents along E, N, P dimensions to determine personality type
What is strength of Eysenck theory
Evidence supporting criminal personality. Eysenck and Eysenck compared 2070 prisoners on EPQ with 2422 controls. On measures of extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism across all age groups prisoners had higher scores than controls. Agrees with predictions of theory that offenders rate higher in all 3 dimensions
What is counterpoint to Eysenck theory
Farrington et al conducted meta analysis of relevant studies and reported offenders tend to score high on measures of psychoticism but not for extraversion and neuroticism. And inconsistent evidence of differences in EEGs between extraverts and introverts which casts doubt on Eysenck physiological basis of his theory. Means some central assumptions of criminal personality have been challenged
What is a limitation of Eysenck theory
Idea that all offending behaviour can be explained by personality traits alone is untrue. Moffat drew distinctions between offending behaviour that occurs only in teens (adolescent-limited) and life long (life course persistent). Argued personality traits alone poor predictor of how long offending behaviour would go on for, persistence in offending behaviour result of reciprocal process between individual personality traits and environmental reaction to traits. Suggests offending behaviour due to interaction between personality and environment which is more complex that Eysenck suggested.
What is a further limitation of Eysenck theory
Cultural factors not accounted for. Criminal personality may vary according to culture. Bartol and Holanchock studied Hispanic/African American offenders in maximum security prison, divide offenders into 6 groups based on offending history and nature of offence, found all 6 groups less extravert than non offenders but Eysenck would expect more extravert. Suggested this was due to different cultural group being investigated. Questions how far criminal personality can be generalised and suggests may be culturally relative concept
What did Kohlberg do
First researcher to apply concept of moral reasoning to offending behaviour
What did Kohlberg propose
Peoples decisions and judgements on issues of right and wrong can be summarised in a stage theory of moral reasoning
What did Kohlberg base his theory on
Peoples responses to a series of moral dilemmas like the Heinz dilemma
What have may studies suggested about moral development in crime
Offenders show a lower level of moral reasoning than non-offenders, Kohlberg et al using his moral dilemmas found a group of violent youths were at a significantly lower level of moral development than non-violent youths (even after controlling for social background)
What is the link between Kohlberg level of moral reasoning and criminality
Offenders likely to be classified at pre-conventional level of Kohlberg model (stages 1/2) but non offenders progress to conventional level and beyond
What are characteristics of pre-conventional level
Need to avoid punishment and gain rewards and is associated with less mature, childlike reasoning, so adults and teens who reason at this level may commit crime if they can get away with it/gain reward like money or respect
What is the assumption about pre-conventional level and crime supported by
Studies which suggests offenders more egocentric and display poor social skills than non-offender peers.
What is characteristics of those who reason at higher levels (conventional level and beyond)
Tend to sympathise more with rights of others and exhibit more conventional behaviours like honesty, generosity and non-violence
What are cognitive distortions
Errors/biases in peoples info processing systems characterised by faulty thinking. We all occasionally show evidence of faulty thinking when explaining our own behaviour but research linked in his to the way which offenders interpret other peoples behaviour and justify their own actions
What are 2 examples of cognitive distortions
Hostile attribution bias and minimalisation
What is hostile attribution bias
Tendency to judge ambiguous situations or actions of others as aggressive and/or threatening when in reality it may not be
What does evidence suggest about hostile attribution bias
Evidence suggests that a propensity for violence is often associated with a tendency to misinterpret the actions of other people (assume others being confrontational when they’re not)
What is an example of hostile attribution bias
Offenders may misread non-aggressive cues (being looked at) and this may trigger disproportionate violent response
What study supports hostile attribution bias
Schonenberg and Jusyte presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions when compared with non aggressive matched control group, violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive images as angry and hostile
What is the root of hostile attribution bias
Root may be apparent in childhood, Dodge and Frame showed children video of ambiguous provocation (intention neither clearly hostile or accidental), children identified as aggressive and rejected prior to study interpreted situation more hostile than those classed as non aggressive and accepted
What is minimalisation
An attempt to deny or downplay seriousness of an offence also known as euphemistic label for behaviour
What is an example of minimalisation
Burglars may describe themselves as doing a job or supporting my family to minimise seriousness of their offence
What study supports minimalisation
Studies suggested sexual offenders particular prone to minimalisation, Barbaree found among 26 incarcerated rapists, 54% denied they committed the offence and 49% minimised they caused harm to the victim
What is a strength of level of moral reasoning
Evidence for link between level of moral reasoning and crime. Palmer and Hollin compared moral reasoning in 332 non offenders and 126 convicted offenders using socio moral reflection measure which contains 11 moral dilemma related questions like not taking things that belong to others and keeping promises. Offender group showed less mature moral reasoning than non-offender group. Consistent with Kohlbergs predictions.
What is a limitation of level of moral reasoning
Depends on the offence. Thornton and Reid found people who committed crimes for financial gain more likely to show pre conventional moral reasoning than those who convicted for impulsive crimes like assault. Pre-conventional moral reasoning tends to be associated with crimes where offender believes they can evade punishment. Suggests Kohlbergs theory may not apply to all crimes.
What is a strength of cognitive distortions
Has application to therapy. Cognitive behaviour therapy aims to challenge irrational thinking. In case of offending behaviour, offenders encourage to face up to what they’ve done and establish less distorted view of their actions. Studies suggest reduced incidence of denial and minimalisation in therapy highly associated with reduced risk of reoffending. Suggests that the theory of cognitive distortions has practical value
What is a limitation of cognitive distortions
Limitation is level of cognitive distortions depends on type of offence. Howitt and Sheldon gathered questionnaire responses from sexual offenders. Contrary to what researchers predicted, they found non-contact sexual offenders used more cognitive distortion than contact sexual offenders. Those who had previous history of offending also more likely to use distortions as a justification. Suggests distortions are not used in the same way by all offenders
What is differential association theory
Proposes that individuals learn values, attitudes, techniques and motives for offending behaviour through association and interaction with different people
Example of differential association theory
One person might associate with people who have negative attitudes towards crime while another person may be exposed to more positive attitudes
What is differential association theory scientific basis
Sutherland developed set of scientific principles that could explain all types of offending (eg. Conditions which are said to cause crime should be present when crime is present and should be absent when crime is absent), his theory is designed to discriminate between individuals who become offenders and those who don’t, regardless of social class or ethnic background
How may offending behaviour be acquired
Through process of learning, learning occurs through interactions with signify others who child values and spends time with like friends and family
What does differential association theory suggest about offending as a learnt behaviour
Possible to mathematically predict his likely it is an individual will commit an offence, to do it we need to know frequency, intensity and duration of exposure to deviant and non deviant norms and values
What to factors does offending arise from according to differential association theory
Learned attitudes towards offending and learning of specific offending acts
What are learning attitudes in differential association theory
When a person socialised into group they will be exposed to values and attitudes towards the law, some of the values will be pro-crime some anti crime. Sutherland argues if number of pro criminal attitudes person exposed to outweighs anti criminal attitudes they will offend. Learning process is same whether person is learning offending or conformity to the law
What are learning techniques in differential association theory
Being exposed to pro crime attitudes, the would be offender can learn certain techniques to commit offences. Including how to break into a house through locked window or disable car stereo before stealing it
What did Sutherland find about socialisation in prison
Can account for why so many convicts from prison reoffend. Reasonable to assume that whilst inside prison inmates learn specific techniques of offending from other, more experienced offenders that they put into practice on their release, learning may occur through observation and imitation or direct tuition from offending perrs
What is a strength of differential association theory
At the time it was published it changed focus of offending explanations. Sutherland successful in moving emphasis away from biological account like Lombroso atavistic form to the fact deviant social circumstances and environments may be more to blame for offending than deviant people. This approach more desirable as offers realistic solution to problems of offending instead of eugenics or punishment
What is a counterpoint to differential association theory
Theory runs risk of stereotyping people who come from impoverished, crime ridden backgrounds as unavoidably offenders. The theory suggests exposure to pro crime values is sufficient to produce offending in whose who are exposed to it. This ignores fact that people may choose not to offend despite influences
What is another strength of differential association theory
Can account for offending in all sectors of society. Sutherland recognised some types of offence, like burglary, maybe clustered within inner city working class communities, and offences may be clustered in more affluent groups in society. Sutherland interested in corporate offences and may be a feature of middle class social groups who share deviant norms and values. This shows that it’s not just lower class who commit offences and principles of differential association can be used to explain all offences
What is a limitation of differential association theory
Difficult to test predictions of differential association. Sutherland aimed to provide scientific, mathematical framework to predict future offending behaviour so predictions must be testable. But many concepts can’t be operationalised. Eg. Hard to see how number of pro crime attitudes could be measured. Also theory build on assumptions that crime occurs when pro crime attitudes outweighs anti crime. But can’t measure these so don’t know if offending career has been triggered. Means theory doesn’t have scientific credibility
What is the tripartite structure to personality
Superego, Id and ego
When is superego former and what is it
End of phallic stage of development when children resolve Oedipus complex, superego works on morality principle and exerts its influence by punishing ego through guilt for wrongdoing, and rewarding it with pride for good moral behaviour
What did Blackburn argue about psychodynamic explanations of offending
If Superego is deficient or inadequate then offending behaviour is inevitable as Id given free rein and not properly controlled
What 3 types of inadequate superegos have been proposed
The weak superego, the deviant superego, the over-harsh superego
What is the weak superego
If same-gender parent is absent during phallic stage, child can’t internalise a fully formed superego as no opportunity for identification, make immoral/offending behaviour more likely
What is deviant superego
Superego that a child internalises has immoral or deviant values this would lead to offending behaviour. Eg. Boy who is raised by a criminal father is not likely to associate guilt with wrongdoing
What is the over harsh superego
Healthy superego based on identification with a parent who has firm rules but forgives transgressions. Contrast an excessively punitive or overly harsh parenting style leads to over harsh superego who is crippled by guilt and anxiety, may unconsciously drive person to perform criminal acts to satisfy superego need for punishment
What is the role of emotions on inadequate superego
Inadequate superegos aloe primitive, emotional demands to become upmost in guiding moral behaviour
How is role of emotions key feature of inadequate superego in psychodynamic approach
Approach deals with emotional life of the individual, eg. Acknowledges role of anxiety and guilt in development is of offending behaviour, also means lack of guilt is relevant to understanding offending behaviour as in case of maternal deprivation theory
What did Bowlby argue about maternal deprivation
Ability to form meaningful relationships in adulthood depended on child forming a warm, continuous relationship with a mother figure. Failure to establish this in first few years of life means child likely to experience damaging and irreversible consequences in later life
What is a consequence of maternal deprivation
Affectionless psychopathy- characterised by lack of guilt, empathy and feelings for others, such maternally deprived individuals are likely to engage in acts of delinquency and can’t develop close relationships with others
How did Bowlby support his claims about maternal deprivation and affectionless psychology using 44 juvenile thieves
Found through interviews with thieves and their families that 14 showed personality and behavioural characteristics classed with affectionless psychopathy and of the 14, 12 experienced prolonged separation from their mothers in infancy. Non offender group only 2 experienced prolonged separation. Bowlby concluded effects of maternal deprivation has caused effectionless and delinquent behaviour in juvenile thieves
What is a strength of psychodynamic explanations of offending
Research support for link between offending and superego. Goreta conducted Freudian style analysis of 10 offenders referred for psychiatric treatment. In all those assessed disturbances in superego formation were diagnosed, each offender experienced unconscious feeling of guilt and need for self punishment. Goreta explained this as consequence of over harsh superego, need to punish manifesting itself as desire to offend. This evidence supports role of psychic conflicts and over harsh superego as basis of offending
What is a counterpoint of psychodynamic explanations of offending
Generally central principles of inadequate superego theory not supported. If this theory correct we would expect harsh, punitive parents to raise children who always experience guilt and anxiety. Evidence suggests opposite is true, parents who rely on harsh forms of discipline raise rebellious children who rarely express guilt. Calls into question relationship between strong, punitive internal parent and excessive feelings of guilt within the child
What is a limitation of psychodynamic explanations of offending
It is gender biased. Assumption with Freudian theory is girls develop weaker superego than boys as identification with same gender parent isn’t as strong as girls don’t experience intense emotion associated with castration anxiety, so under less pressure to identify with their mother. Implication is women should be more prone to offending than men but imprisonment rates show opposite. When children had to resist temptation Hoffman found no evidence of gender differences. Suggests alpha bias in Freud’s theory so may not appropriately explain an offending behaviour
What is another limitation of psychodynamic explanations of offending
Bowlby theory only based on association between maternal deprivation and offending. Lewis analysed data drawn from interviews with 500young people and found maternal deprivation poor predictor of future offending. Even if their is a link their is not necessarily a causal cause, countless other reasons for this link like maternal deprivation may be due to growing up in poverty explains later offending. Suggests maternal deprivation may be one reason for later offending but not only reason
