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Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Short term memory(STM)

A

Limited capacity memory store, STM coding is mainly acoustic. Capacity is between 5-9items and duration 18secs

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2
Q

Long term memory LTM

A

Permanent memory store. LTM coding is mainly semantic it has unlimited capacity and memories can last a lifetime

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3
Q

Coding

A

Format in which info is stored in various memory stores

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4
Q

Capacity

A

Amount of info that can be held in a memory store

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5
Q

Duration

A

Length of time info can be held in memory

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6
Q

Multi store model

A

Representation of how memory works in terms of 3 stores:SR,STM,LTM, also describes how info is transferred from one store to another what make some memories last and others disappear

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7
Q

Sensory register

A

Memory store for each of 5 senses such as as vision ionic store and hearing echoic store, capacity is huge and info only last for half a second, ionic is coded visual and echoic is acoustic

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8
Q

Episodic memory

A

A LTM store for personal events, it includes memories of when the events occurred and of the people, objects, places and behaviours involved, memories from this store have to be retrieved consciously and with effort

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9
Q

Semantic memory

A

A LTM store for our knowledge of the world, this includes facts and our knowledge of what words and concepts mean, these memories usually also need to be recalled deliberately

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10
Q

Procedural memory

A

A LTM store for our knowledge of how to do things, this includes our memories of learned skills, we usually recall these memories with making a conscious or deliberate effort

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11
Q

Working memory model

A

A representation of STM, it suggests that STM is a dynamic processor of different types of info using subunits co-ordination by a central decision making system

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12
Q

Central executive

A

The component of the WMM that co ordinates the activities of the 3 subsystems in memory, also allocates processing resources to those activities

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13
Q

What is dependant on the type of memory store

A

What form memory is stored in

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14
Q

What is coding

A

The process of converting information between different stores

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15
Q

Who designed multi-store model

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin

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16
Q

What does multi-store model describe

A

How info flow through a memory system

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17
Q

What does multi store model suggest about memory stores

A

Memory is made up of 3 stores linked by processing

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18
Q

How does the multi store model work

A

Stimulus from environment enters sensory register, if we pay attention to it, it is processed into STM, then we either use this knowledge in STM or do prolonged reversal u til it enters out LTM. If we want to retrieve this info we then need to process it from long to short term memory before we can do it.

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19
Q

In multi store model where do all stimuli from environment frost go and give an example

A

Pass into sensory register (sound of someone talking)

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20
Q

Does the sensory register in MSM have just one register

A

No it has several, one for each of our 5 senses

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21
Q

How does coding in the sensory register of MSM work

A

Coding in each store is modality-specific (depends on sense): store coding for visual info is iconic memory and store coding acoustically (sound) is echoic memory and others ones for touch, taste, smell info

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22
Q

What is the duration of info in sensory register in MSM

A

Very brief-less than half a sec

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23
Q

What is sensory registers capacity in MSM

A

Has very high capacity, e.g. over 100million cells in the eye each storing data

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24
Q

How does info pass further into memory system from sensory register

A

If you pay attention to it

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25
Q

How is info on STM mostly coded and what is its duration so what does this mean

A

Mostly coded acoustically and lasts about 18-secs unless rehearsed so STM is more of a temporary store

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26
Q

What is capacity of STM

A

It is a limited-capacity store as it can only contain a certain number of items before forgetting occurs(5-9items)

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27
Q

When does maintenance rehearsal occur and in what store

A

Occurs in STM when we repeat material to ourselves over and over again

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28
Q

How long can info stay in our STM if we rehearse it and when does it move to LTM

A

Info stays in STM as long as we rehearse it and if we rehearse it long enough it passes to LTM

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29
Q

What is duration of LTM and why

A

Potentially permeant memory store of info that has been rehearsed for a prolonged time

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30
Q

How is LTM coded and it’s duration + who said about LTM duration

A

It is coded semantically and its duration is up to a lifetime-Bahrick et al found many people could remember faces and names 50 years after graduating)

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31
Q

What is LTM capacity

A

Almost unlimited

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32
Q

According to MSM what has to happen before we can recall LTM

A

When we want to recall info from LTM , it has be transferred back into STM by process called retrieval

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33
Q

What is a strength of MSM

A

Support from studies showing that STM and LTM are different

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34
Q

What is supporting evidence for MSM

A

Baddeley found we mix words that sound similar when using STM but we mix words with similar meanings in LTM, also capacity and duration studies from Miller, Peterson and Peterson, and Bahrick et al support MSM, so these studies show STM and LTM are separate and independent memory stores as claimed by MSM

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35
Q

What is the counterpoint to supporting evidence of the MSM

A

In everyday life we form memories relating to many useful things such as names, faces, facts, places, etc, but many studies supporting MSM didn’t use these materials, instead they used digits, letters (Jacobs) and words (Baddeley) or constant syllables (Peterson’s) that have no meaning which means MSM may not be valid mode of how memory works in everyday life where we have to remember more meaningful info

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36
Q

What is a limitation of MSM

A

There is evidence of more than 1 STM store, Shallice and Warrington studied KF who has amnesia. KF STM for digits was very poor when read to him to his recall was much better if he read them himself, further studies of KF and others show there could be another STM for non-verbal sounds which suggests MSM is wrong in claiming that there is only 1 STM store processing all types of info

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37
Q

What is another limitation of MSM

A

Limitation of MSM is prolonged reversal is not needed for transfer to LTM. MSM says the more you rehearse something the more likely it will transfer to LTM but Craik and Watkins found type of reversal is more important than amount. Elaborate reversal needed for long term storage and occurs when you link info to existing knowledge to new new info, this means info can be transferred to LTM without prolonged rehearsal which suggests MSM doesn’t fully explain how LT storage is achieved

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38
Q

Who designed working memory model

A

Baddeley and Hitch

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39
Q

What is the working memory model

A

An explanation of how one aspect of memory (STM) is organised and how it functions

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40
Q

What is working memory model concerned with and give example

A

Concerned with mental space that is active when we are temporarily storing and manipulating info (e.g. when working on an arithmetic problem or playing chess or understanding a language

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41
Q

How many components does working memory have and are they similar or different

A

Has 4 main components, each of which is qualitatively different(esp in terms of coding and capacity)

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42
Q

What is central executive in WMM

A

Had a supervisory role, it monitors incoming data, focuses and divides our limited attention and allocates slave systems to tasks

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43
Q

What is central executive capacity

A

Limited processing capacity and doesn’t store information

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44
Q

What is the phonological loop in WMM

A

One of the slave systems, it deals with auditory info (acoustically coded) and preserves order in which info arrives

45
Q

How is the phonological loop divided

A

Divided into phonological store(stores words you hear) and articulatory process(allow maintenance rehearsal-repeating sounds/words in a loop to keep them in working memory while they’re needed)

46
Q

What is capacity of phonological loop

A

2secs worth if what you can say

47
Q

What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad in WMM

A

The second slave system which stores visual and/or spatial info when required

48
Q

What is an example of something stored in visuo-spatial sketchpad

A

If you are asked to work out how many windows there are in your house, you visualise it

49
Q

What is visuo-spatial sketchpad capacity

A

Limited capacity, baddeley said 3-4objects

50
Q

What did Robert Logie sub divide visuo-spatial sketchpad into

A

Visual cache (stores visual data), inner scribe (records arrangements of objects in visual field

51
Q

What is the episodic buffer in WMM

A

Third slave system, added by Baddeley in 2000, its a temporary store of info, integrating: visual spatial and verbal info processes by other stores and maintains a sense of time sequencing(recording events that are happening)

52
Q

What can the episodic buffer be seen as

A

Can be seen as a storage component of CE and according to Baddeley has limited capacity of 4 chunks

53
Q

What does the episodic buffer link what to what

A

It kinks working memory (STM) to LTM and wider cognitive processes like perception

54
Q

What is a strength of Baddeley and Hitch working memory model

A

Support from Shallice and Warrington case study of KF. After KF brain injury, he had poor STM ability for auditory info but could process visual info perfectly (eg. His immediate recall of letters and digits was better when he read them than when they were read to him), KF phonological loop damaged but VSS was intact. This finding strongly supports existence of depart visual and acoustic STM stores

55
Q

What is the counterpoint to Baddeley and Hitch WMM

A

It is unclear if KF had other cognitive impairments apart from damage to his PL which may have effected his performance on memory tasks. E.g. his injury caused by motorcycle accident and trauma involved may have effected his cognitive performance more than brain injury itself. This challenges evidence that comes from clinical studies of people with brain injuries that may have effected different systems

56
Q

What is another strength of Baddeley and Hitch WMM

A

Strength is a study of dual-task performance supports separate existence of VSS, when Baddeley et al participants carried out visual and verbal tasks at the same time (dual), their performance on each one was similar to when they carried out task separately, but when both tasks were visual or verbal performance was much worse as both tasks we competing for same slave subsystem, this shows there must be separate slave systems that process visual and verbal input.

57
Q

What is a limitation of baddeley and hitch WMM

A

lack of clarity over nature of central executive. Baddeley recognised this when he said “the CE is the most important but least understood component of WMM” The CE needs to be more clearly specified than just being simply “attention”.e.g. some psychologists think CE may have separate subcomponents. This means CE is an unsatisfactory component and this challenges integrity of WMM

58
Q

When asked a question what may effect an answer

A

The wording may lead/mislead you to give a certain answer

59
Q

When is misleading questions an issue in everyday life

A

Issue for eyewitness testimony as police questions may direct a witness to give particular answer

60
Q

Who studied effect of misleading questions.

A

Loftus and Palmer

61
Q

What was Loftus and Palmer procedure in misleading question study

A

45participants watched clips of a car accident and then asked questions about the accident, in critical question (leading question) participants asked to describe how fast cars going “how fast were cars going when they hit”. There were 5 groups each given a different verb ‘hit’’contacted’’bumped’’collided’’smashed’

62
Q

What is a critical question

A

Misleading question

63
Q

What were Loftus and palmers findings in leading questions study

A

Mean estimated speed calculated for each group and verb contacted had mean estimate of 31.8mph but verb smashed had mean estimate of 40.5mph which shows leading questions biased eyewitness recall of events

64
Q

What does response-bias explanation suggest

A

That wording of question has no real effect on participants memory, but it influences how they decide to answer

65
Q

According to response-bias explanation when participants get question using word smashed how would they answer

A

It would encourage them to choose a higher speed even if memory wasn’t altered

66
Q

What did Loftus and Palmers 2nd study into misleading questions support

A

Substitution explanation-proposes that wording if a leading questions changed participants memory of film clip

67
Q

How did Loftus and Palmers 2nd experiment on misleading questions support substitution explanation

A

Shown as participants who originally heard smashed later more likely to report broken glass (there was none) than those who heard word hit. So critical verb altered their memory of the the incident

68
Q

What is post event discussion

A

Eyewitnesses to a crime may discuss their experiences and memories with each other

69
Q

Who studied effects post event discussion on EWT

A

Gabbert et al

70
Q

What was Gabert et al study into effects of post event discussion on EWT

A

Studied participants in pairs, each participant watched same video of the crime but filmed from different viewpoints, so each participant saw elements of event which the other didn’t (eg.on could see hair colour one couldn’t). Both participants then discussed what they saw before individually doing a recall test

71
Q

What were Gabert et al findings on post event discussion study

A

71% participants wrongly recalled aspects of event they didn’t see in video but picked up in discussion, corresponding figure in a control group with no discussion was 0% so this was evidence of memory conformity

72
Q

Why does post event discussion effect EWT (2 reasons)

A

1 explanation is memory contamination-when a co witness to a crime discuss with each other their EWT may become distorted and altered as they combine misinformation from other witness memory with their own. Another explanation is memory conformity, Gabbert et al concluded witnesses often go along with each other to win social approval or as they believe witness are right and they are wrong (unlike memory contamination actual memory is unchanged)

73
Q

What is a strength of research into misleading info

A

It has important particle use in criminal justice system, consequence of inaccurate EWT can be very serious, Loftus believed leading questions can have such distorting effect on memory that police officers need to be careful how they phrase questions. Psychologists sometimes asked to act as expert witnesses in court trial and explain limits of EWT to jury. Shows psychologists can help improve way legal system works, esp protecting people from faulty convictions form bad EWT

74
Q

What is the counterpoint to research into misleading info being important in criminal justice system

A

Particles application of EWT may be effected by research issues. Eg. Loftus and Palmer participants watched film clips in lab which is very different (less stressful) than watching an accident first hand. Also, foster et al point out that what eyewitnesses remember has important consequences in the real world but participants responses in research don’t matter in the same way (less motivation to be correct) suggesting researchers like Loftus are too pessimistic about effects of misleading info (EWT more reliable that study suggests)

75
Q

What is a limitation of research into misleading questions

A

Limitation of substitution explanation is EWT is more accurate for some aspects of an event than others.eg. Sutherland and Hayne showed participants a video clip, when participants were later asked misleading questions their recall was more accurate for central details of event rather than peripheral ones. Participants were focused on central events and these were resistant to misleading questions. Suggests original memories for central details survived and distorted which isn’t predicted by substitution explanation

76
Q

What is another limitation into research into misleading questions

A

Limitation of memory conformity explanation is evidence post event discussion does alter EW memory. Skater berg and Wright showed their participants film clips, there were 2 versions, mugger hair was dark brown in one and light in the other, participants discussed clip in pairs each having seen different version, they often reported a blend of the 2 “hair was medium brown” which suggests memory itself is distorted through contamination by misleading post event discussion rather than as result of memory conformity

77
Q

What is anxiety and how does it effect EWT

A

Stress, anxiety has strong emotional and physical effects but not clear if effects make EWT better or worse (research supports both sides)

78
Q

What does anxiety create in the body and what does this cause

A

Anxiety creates physiological arousal in the body which prevents us paying attention to important cues, so worse recall

79
Q

What is one approach to studying anxiety and EWT

A

Too look at effects of a weapon being present which creates anxiety which leads to focusing on the weapon, reducing witnesses recall for other details of event

80
Q

Who studied weapon focus effect

A

Johnson and Scott

81
Q

What was Johnson and Scott procedure

A

Participants believed they were part of a lab study, while waiting in waiting room participants (in low anxiety condition) had low anxiety as they heard a casual convo in the nest room and then saw a man walking out with a greasy pen in his hand, in high anxiety condition, participants heard a heated argument and a man walked out holding a bloody knife

82
Q

What were Johnson and Scott’s findings and conclusions in weapon focus study

A

Participants later picked out man from set of 50 photos, 49% who saw man carrying pen identified him, but only 33% who saw bloody knife identified correct man. Tunnel theory of memory argues that people have enhanced memory for central events, weapon focus as effect of anxiety

83
Q

What is the opposing thought about anxiety in the body

A

Stressful event causes physiological arousal in body, so flight or fight is triggered increasing alertness which may improve memory for event as we become more aware of cues in the situation

84
Q

Who studied anxiety on post event recall (positive)

A

Yuille and Cutshall

85
Q

What was Yuille and Cutshall procedure into anxiety and recall

A

Conducted study of actual shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver Canada. Shop owner shot thief dead and 21 witnesses took part in the study. They were interview 4-5months after incident and interviews were compared to original police report, according to each number of details recorded, witnesses also asked to rate how stressed they were during incident on 7point scale and if they had emotional problems since

86
Q

What were Yullie and Cutshall findings and conclusions to anxiety and recall study

A

Witnesses vey accurate in their accounts and their was little change in amount recalled after 5months, some details less accurate (colour of items, age, height, weight estimate) but participants who reported higher anxiety and better accurate recall. 89% compared to 75% of less stressed group, suggesting anxiety doesn’t have detrimental effect in accuracy of EW memory in real world context

87
Q

Who explained contradictory findings in anxiety and recall

A

Yerkes and Dodson

88
Q

How did Yerkes and Dodson explain contradicting findings on recall and anxiety studies

A

Said relation between emotional arousal and performance looks like ‘inverted U’.

89
Q

What did Deffenbacher review to do with inverted U in anxiety and recall studies

A

Reviewed 21 studies of EWT and noted contradictory findings on effects of anxiety and he used Yerkes-Dodson Law to explain findings

90
Q

Explain inverted U theory by Yerkes and Dodson

A

When we witness crime/accident we come emotionally and physically aroused, we experience anxiety(emotional) as well as physiological changes(fight or flight), lower levels of anxiety produce lower levels of accurate recall and memory comes more accurate as anxiety increases but there’s and optimal level of anxiety which = max accuracy. If person exceeds this their recall starts declining

91
Q

What is a limitation of anxiety and EWT studies

A

Johnson and Scott study may not have tested anxiety, reason participants focused on weapon was as they were surprised not scared at what they saw. Pickel conducted an experiment using scissors, handgun, wallet or raw chicken held in hand of a hairdresser in a salon video (scissors high anxiety, lowest unusualness) EW accuracy wed much worse in high unusual condition (chicken or handgun) which suggests weapon focus effect is due to unusualness no anxiety/threat and so tells us nothing specific about effects of anxiety on EWT

92
Q

what is a strength of anxiety on EWT studies

A

Supporting view that anxiety has negative effect on recall accuracy. Study by Valentine and Mesout supports research on weapon focus, finding negative effects on recall. Researchers used objective measure (heart rate) to divide participants to high/low anxiety groups, in this study anxiety clearly disrupts participants ability to recall details about actor in London dungeons labyrinth. Suggests that high anxiety levels does have negative effect on immediate EW recall of stressful events

93
Q

What is another strength on evidence to do with anxiety effecting EWT

A

Evidence showing anxiety can have positive effects on accuracy of recall. Christianson and Hubinette interview 58witnesses to actual bank robbery in Sweden, some directly involved (bank workers) some indirectly involved (bystanders), research assumed those directly involved would have worse recall. It was found recall was 75% accurate in all witnesses but direct most anxious witnesses we more accurate. So findings from actual crimes show anxiety doesn’t reduce accuracy of recall for EW and may even enhance it

94
Q

What is the counterpoint for supporting evidence for anxiety having positive effect on EW

A

Christianson and Hubinette interviewed participants servers months after event (4-15months). So researchers had no control over what happened to participants in intervening time (post event discussion). Effects of anxiety may have been overwhelmed by these other factors and impossible to assess by time participants we interviewed. So it’s possible lack of control over cofounding variables may be responsible for the findings, invalidating their support

95
Q

What problem are there with the inverted U theory

A

It appears reasonable to explain contradictory findings of anxiety on EW recall but it ignores fact that anxiety has many elements (cognitive, behavioural, emotional, physical). It only focuses on physical arousal and assumes this is the only aspect linked to EWT whereas the way we think about situations (cognitive) may also be important

96
Q

Who argued EWT could be improved if police used better techniques when interviewing witnesses

A

Fisher and Geiselman

97
Q

What did Fisher and Geiselman recommend to do with police interview techniques

A

They recommended police interview techniques should be based in psychological insights into how memory works and collectively called these techniques cognitive interview-to indicate its foundation into cognitive psychology

98
Q

What are the 4 main techniques in cognitive interview by Fisher and Geiselman

A

Report everything, reinstate the context, reverse the order, change perspective

99
Q

What is report everything in cognitive interview by fisher and Geiselman

A

Witnesses are encouraged to include every single detail of event , even if it doesn’t seem relevant or witness doesn’t feel sure about it, seemingly trivial details may be important and also may trigger other important memories

100
Q

What is reinstate the context in cognitive interview by fisher and Geiselman

A

Witnesses should return to original crime scene in their mind and imagine the environment, such as what the weather was like, what they could see and their emotions at the time (related to context dependant forgetting)

101
Q

What is reverse the order in cognitive interview by fisher and Geiselman

A

Events should be recalled in different order from original sequence, eg. Final point back to the beginning or middle to beginning, this is done to prevent people reporting expectations of how event happened rather than what did happen, also prevents dishonesty as harder for people to lie if recalling in reverse

102
Q

What is change perspective in cognitive interview by fisher and Geiselman

A

Witness should recall incident from another persons perspective eg. Perpetrators view of event, done to disrupt effect of expectation and effect of schema on recall (like schema you have for a particular setting(going into a shop) generates expectation of what should have happened and it’s the schema recalled rather than what really happened

103
Q

What is the enhanced cognitive interview

A

Fisher et al developed additional elements of the cognitive interview to focus on social dynamics of interaction. eg. Interviewer needs to establish eye contact and when to relinquish it. Enhanced cognitive interview also includes ideas like reducing EW anxiety, minimising distractions, getting witnesses to speak slowly and asking open ended questions

104
Q

What is a strength of cognitive interview

A

Evidence that it works. Meta-analysis by Kohnken et al combine data from 55 studies comparing cognitive interview and enhanced CI with standard police interview. CI gave 41% increase in accurate info compared to standard interview and only 4 studies showed no difference between types of interview. Shows CI is effective technique in helping witnesses recall info stored in memory (available) but not immediately accessible

105
Q

What is the counterpoint to evidence showing cognitive interview works

A

Kohnken et al also found increase in amount of inaccurate recall by participants which was particular issue in ECI, which produced more incorrect details than CI. Cognitive interviews may decrease quality of EWT (accuracy) in favour of quantity (amount of detail) which means police officers should treat EWT from CI of ECI with caution

106
Q

What is a limitation of cognitive interview

A

Not all elements of original CI are equally effective or useful. Milne and Bull found each of 4 techniques used alone produced more evidence than standard interview but also found combo for report everything and reinstate the context produced better recall than the other two combined. This confirms officers suspicions that some aspects of CI are more useful than others which casts doubt on credibility of overall cognitive interview

107
Q

What is another limitation of cognitive interview

A

Police officers reluctant to use CI as takes more time and training than standard interview. Eg. More time needed to establish rapport with witness to get them to relax. CI also requires special training and many forces don’t have resources to provide more than a few hours according to Kebell and Wagstaff. This suggests complete CI as it exists is not realistic method for officers to use and might be better to focus on just a few key elements

108
Q

What are positives and negative of police approach to use variations of cognitive interview

A

Police forces have taken pick and mix approach to various techniques of CI, which means it’s hard to compare effectiveness of different approaches in research studies. But this pick and mix approach is more flexible and means that individuals can develop their own approach according to what works best for them

Psychology (12 decks)

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