Research and Design Flashcards
The nature of Scientific inquiry is the desire to _____
Know
It is about, six things:
- Exploration…
- Learning the w, h, and wh_, things F_____ the way they do
- Testing _______ about the nature of something
- Connecting Conc________ understanding with Obj________ reality
- testing and connecting theo___ premises, _____, and frameworks with observable phen_____.
- It involves using ____ order and _______ procedure to solve real world problems
It is about exploration!
- It is about learning what, how, and
why things function the way they do. - It is about testing hypotheses about
the nature of something. - It is about connecting conceptual
understanding with objective reality. - It is about testing and connecting
theoretical premises, claims, and
frameworks with observable
phenomena. - It involves using a logical order and established procedures to solve real-world problems.
real world conclusions are often ____ because of ______ in sources of knowledge reduce the accuracy of reasoning
flawed; limitations
Generally, people subjectively interpret their own observations and what is learned via
______- and ________.
TRADITION
And
AUTHORITY
tradition refers to…
Tradition refers to cultural teachings about the
“real world” * Sometimes very useful (watch out for poisonous things)
HOWEVER - most of the time traditional-
based knowledge is flawed, resulting in the
perpetuation of inaccurate beliefs,
perceptions, or fallacious thinking
“That which may be thought right and found convenient in one age,
may be thought wrong and found inconvenient in another. In such
cases, who is to decide, the living, or the dead?”
Who said it?
Thomas Paine
(1791) in “The Rights of Man”
Social
Authority refers to…
Authority refers to new knowledge that is provided from
the observations of others whom one respects
- If the authority being appealed to is an expert on the
topic from which knowledge flows, then it is more
likely to be correct - HOWEVER – the knowledge one gains from an
“authority” depends on that authority’s grounding
and expertise in the topic
Causal inquiry is influenced by. . .
Causal inquiry is influenced by “tradition” and
“authority” – therefore it is also subject to error
Errors of “Causal Inquiry” (based on its birthing by “tradition” and “influence”)
4 errors:
Inaccurate observation – conclusions drawn
from incomplete/hasty information
- Overgeneralization – conclusions are made
about individuals/groups based on knowledge
of similar individuals/groups - Selective observation – one sees only those
things that one wants to see; confirmation bias
also implied here - Illogical reasoning – despite past observations,
the future will be different
Antidote to casual inquiry error (what method do we use?)
Scientific Method!
IMPORTANT: the scientific method seeks to provide a means of investigation to correct the
_________ of ordinary human Inq_______.
Inaccuracies
inquiry
means of the SCIENTIFIC METHOD in preventing errors in our inquires:
Specify Objectivity
Logic
Theoretical reasoning
And knowledge of prior research
Empiricism
Empiricism – seeking answers through direct observation
Skepticsm
Skepticism – seeking disconfirming evidence and always questioning the conclusions
reached
Relativism
Relativism – the truth and falsity “are products of differing conventions and
frameworks of assessment and that their authority is confined to the context giving
rise to them.” In other words, there are few axioms in life…
objectivity
Objectivity – observing the world objectively as it really exists, free from opinion,
belief, faith, and prejudice (the best that we possibly can
Ethical Neutrality
Ethical neutrality – researchers’ beliefs or preferences are NOT allowed to influence
the research process or its outcomes
Parsimony
Parsimony – reducing the sum of possible explanations for an event/phenomenon to
the smallest possible number. In other words, to seek the simplest explanation
Accuracy
Accuracy – recording observations exactly as they occur
Precision
Precision – specifying the number of subcategories of a concept that are available
Ladder of Scientific process:
1st Observation
2nd Hypothesis
3rd Experiment
Leading to Theory!
Theory suggests how something should be: it is “an A______ to explain why a particular ____
_____ or _____ occurs”
attempt;
social activity;
event
Personal Ide_____ are of no value in criminological theory unless they are evaluable via the ____ _______
ideologies;
Scientific method
hypotheses are . . .
Hypotheses are specifically measurable statements
Theories are built from more precise statements
(concepts), termed “______”
“hypothesis”
Inductive defintion
Inductive – observe event(s), make
empirical generalizations about observed activities, construct theory based on those activities
Deductive definition
Deductive – Theoretical orientation,
develop hypotheses, test hypotheses ,
develop empirical generalizations that support theoretical framework
Which approach (deductive or inductive) does the scientific method utilize?
Deductive
Research Origins:
Applied research – scientific study of some phenomena with practical application as
the main goal. Findings from this type of research can be used to improve, change, or
eliminate the thing being studied
- Basic research – pure research that is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge
about a particular set of phenomena. Findings from this research advance the
academic field of criminology by contributing knowledge, as well as inform theoretical
orientations for criminal justice system components/operations - Multipurpose research – conducts scientific inquiries for both descriptive and
evaluative purposes. It is both basic and applied, often progressing between these two
forms of research.
types of research:
Descriptive – it’s exactly that, descriptive.
We conduct research to describe the
nature of the thing we are interested in.
- Explanatory – research focuses on why
something occurs, the causes behind
events - Predictive – research focuses on
predicting events or actions into the
future (e.g., actuarial risk assessments) - Intervening - research focuses on the
effectiveness of something (like programs
or policies) in producing desired results
Why research is necessary:
We conduct research because…
*We’re curious
*We’re interested in addressing some social problem
*We’re interested in testing the applicability or predictive potential of criminological theories
*If we did not conduct research usingscientific methods, our curiosities,our ability to address problems, andour understanding of whethertheories actually explain criminalbehavior would be diminishedconsiderably!
Factors that influence research decisions:
- Social/political factors – Criminology/criminal justice
research is necessarily influenced by social and political
factors. Gun violence research and/or gun policy
research is particularly controversial, and thus will impact
how research on these topics are undertaken - Practicality – sometimes, even when a researcher has a
great idea for a study, economic and/or logistical reasons
make it nearly impossible to conduct - Ethical considerations – sometimes research involves
studying protected populations of people, and so issues
of privacy, deception, and potential harm to participants
are always relevant factors in conducting research like
this
