Research Flashcards
case studies
descriptive records of one or more individual’s experiences and behavior.
survey—
a measure administered through either an interview or a written questionnaire to get a picture of the beliefs or behaviors of a sample of people of interest. The people chosen to participate in the research (known as the sample) are selected to be representative of all the people that the researcher wishes to know about (the population).
naturalistic observation—
is research based on the observation of everyday events.
descriptive statistics—
numbers that summarize the distribution of scores on a measured variable.
arithmetic mean,
is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. It is computed by calculating the sum of all the scores of the variable and dividing this sum by the number of participants in the distribution
Dispersion
refers to the extent to which the scores are all tightly clustered around the central tendency,
positive linear
When the straight line indicates that individuals who have above-average values for one variable also tend to have above-average values for the other variable
Negative linear relationships
, in contrast, as shown in part (b), occur when above-average values for one variable tend to be associated with below-average values for the other variable.
curvilinear relationships.
Relationships that change in direction and thus are not described by a single straight line
Pearson correlation coefficient,
which is symbolized by the letter r. The value of the correlation coefficient ranges from r= –1.00 to r = +1.00.
The direction of the linear relationship is indicated by the sign of the correlation coefficient. Positive values of r indicate that the relationship is positive linear whereas negative values of r (r = –.72) indicate negative linear relationships. The strength of the linear relationship is indexed by the distance of the correlation coefficient from zero
Multiple regression
is a statistical technique, based on correlation coefficients among variables, that allows predicting a single outcome variable from more than one predictor variable.
common-causal variable/ third variable
is a variable that is not part of the research hypothesis but that causes both the predictor and the outcome variable and thus produces the observed correlation between them
A spurious relationship
is a relationship between two variables in which a common-causal variable produces and “ explains away‖ the relationship
The independent variable in an experiment
is the causing variable that is created (manipulated) by the experimenter
The dependent variable in an experiment
is a measured variable that is expected to be influenced by the experimental manipulation
random assignment to conditions,
a procedure in which the condition that each participant is assigned to is determined through a random process, such as drawing numbers out of an envelope or using a random number table.
confounding variables
—variables other than the independent variable on which the participants in one experimental condition differ systematically from those in other conditions.
experimenter bias,
a situation in which the experimenter subtly treats the research participants in the various experimental conditions differently, resulting in an invalid confirmation of the research hypothesis.
blind to condition.
This means that although the experimenters know the research hypotheses, they do not know which conditions the participants are assigned to.
double-blind experiment,
both the researcher and the research participants are blind to condition
Generalization
refers to the extent to which relationships among conceptual variables can be demonstrated in a wide variety of people and a wide variety of manipulated or measured variables.
limiting condition of the effect
if the results are different instead of generalized where the results are the same in both cultures
A meta-analysis
is a statistical technique that uses the results of existing studies to integrate and draw conclusions about those studies
hindsight bias
leads us to think that we could have predicted events that we actually could not have predicted.
Structuralism
Uses the method of introspection to identify the basic elements or “stru cture_s_‖ _of psychological experience
The structuralists attempted to analyze the nature of consciousness using introspection.
Important contributors
Wilhelm Wundt, Edward B. Titchener
Functionalism
Attempts to understand why animals and humans have developed the particular psychological aspects that they currently possess
The functionalists based their ideas on the work of Darwin, and their approaches led to the field of evolutionary psychology.
contributor: William James
Psychodynamic
Focuses on the role of our unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories and our early childhood experiences in determining behavior
Psychodynamic psychology focuses on unconscious drives and the potential to improve lives through psychoanalysis and psychotherapy.
contributor: Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erickson
Behaviorism
Based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and therefore that psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself
_The behaviorists explained behavior in terms of stimulus, response, and reinforcement, while denying the presence of free will. “black box”/ thinking box.
contributor: John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner
Cognitive
The study of mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgments
Cognitive psychologists study how people perceive, process, and remember information
contributor: Hermann Ebbinghaus, Sir Frederic Bartlett, Jean Piaget
Social-cultural
The study of how the social situations and the cultures in which people find themselves influence thinking and behavior
The social-cultural approach focuses on the social situation, including how cultures and social norms influence our behavior.
CONTRIBUTOR: Fritz Heider, Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter
Introspection
involves asking research participants to describe exactly what they experience as they work on mental tasks, such as viewing colors, reading a page in a book,
Descriptive research design
goal: To create a snapshot of the current state of affairs advantages: Provides a relatively complete picture of what is occurring at a given time. Allows the development of questions for further study.
disadvantage: Does not assess relationships among variables. May be unethical if participants do not know they are being observed.
Correlational research design
goal: To assess the relationships between and among two or more variables
advantage: Allows testing of expected relationships between and among variables and the making of predictions. Can assess these relationships in everyday life events.
disadvantage: Cannot be used to draw inferences about the causal relationships between and among the variables.
Experimental research design
goal: To assess the causal impact of one or more experimental manipulations on a dependent variable
advantage: Allows drawing of conclusions about the causal relationships among variables. disadvantage: Cannot experimentally manipulate many important variables. May be expensive and time consuming.
Correlational research designs
measure two or more relevant variables and assess a relationship between or among them. The variables may be presented on a scatter plot to visually show the relationships. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r) is a measure of the strength of linear relationship between two variables.
Common-causal variables
may cause both the predictor and outcome variable in a correlational design, producing a spurious relationship. The possibility of common-causal variables makes it impossible to draw causal conclusions from correlational research designs.
Experimental research
involves the manipulation of an independent variable and the measurement of a dependent variable. Random assignment to conditions is normally used to create initial equivalence between the groups, allowing researchers to draw causal conclusions
The independent variable in an experiment
is the causing variable that is created (manipulated) by the experimenter
The dependent variable in an experiment
is a measured variable that is expected to be influenced by the experimental manipulation
random assignment to conditions,
a procedure in which the condition that each participant is assigned to is determined through a random process, such as drawing numbers out of an envelope or using a random number table.
Threats to construct validity.
Although it is claimed that the measured variables measure the conceptual variables of interest, they actually may not.
Threats to statistical conclusion validity.
Conclusions regarding the research may be incorrect because no statistical tests were made or because the statistical tests were incorrectly interpreted. refers to the assurance that inferences about statistical significance are appropriate.
Threats to internal validity.
Although it is claimed that the independent variable caused the dependent variable, the dependent variable actually may have been caused by a confounding variable.
Threats to external validity.
Although it is claimed that the results are more general, the observed effects may actually only be found under limited conditions or for specific groups of people. (Stangor, 2011) [1]
Basic research
is research that answers fundamental questions about behavior. There is no particular reason to examine such things except to acquire a better knowledge of how these processes occur.
Applied research
is research that investigates issues that have implications for everyday life and provides solutions to everyday problems.
The scientific method
is the set of assumptions, rules, and procedures that scientists use to conduct research. In addition to requiring that science be empirical, the scientific method demands that the procedures used be objective, or free from personal bias.
Institutional Review Board, American Psychological Association, and federal governments
groups that judges whether psychological research using human and animals is ethical.
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
is a committee of at least five members whose goal it is to determine the cost-benefit ratio of research conducted within an institution.
cost-benefit analysis
in which the costs are compared to the benefits. Used this analysis to see whether a research is to proceed or not.
