MCAT questions Flashcards
Positive reinforcement
occurs when an event or stimulus is presented as a consequence of a behavior and the behavior increases. Example: Whenever a rat presses a button, it gets a treat. If the rat starts pressing the button more often, the treat serves to positively reinforce this behavior.
Sensorimotor stage
(Infancy). In this period (which has 6 stages), intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because its based on physical interactions / experiences. Children acquire object permanence at about 7 months of age (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities. Some symbollic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage.
1. Reflexes (Birth to 1 Month)
2. Primary Circular Reactions (1–4 Months)
Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions (4–8 Months)
Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8–12 Months)
Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions (12–18 Month
Substage 6: Mental Representation (18–24 Months)
John Bowlby
came up with the attachment theory.
Attachment is a deep and enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across time and space
Anxious-ambivalent attachment
is when the infant feels separation anxiety when separated from his caregiver and does not feel reassured when the caregiver returns to the infant
Anxious-avoidant attachment
is when the infant avoids their parents.
Disorganized attachment
is when there is a lack of attachment behavior.
Separation anxiety
is what infants feel when they are separated from their caregivers
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development
is a psychoanalytic theory which identifies eight stages through which a healthily developing human should pass from infancy to late adulthood. In each stage, the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. Basic Trust vs. Mistrust Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Initiative vs. Guilt Industry vs. Inferiority Identity vs. Role Confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. Stagnation Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Conservation
a logical thinking ability according to the psychologist Jean Piaget, is present in children during the preoperational stage of their development at ages 4–5, but develops in the concrete operational stage at ages 7–11.[1][2] Conservation refers to the ability to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size.
p-value
a p-value helps you determine the significance of your results. A small p-value (typically ≤ 0.05) indicates strong evidence against the null hypothesis, so you reject the null hypothesis (a general statement or default position that there is no relationship between two measured phenomena.)
A large p-value (> 0.05) indicates weak evidence against the null hypothesis, so you fail to reject the null hypothesis.
p-values very close to the cutoff (0.05) are considered to be marginal (could go either way). Always report the p-value so your readers can draw their own conclusions.
oral stage
Birth to 1 year An infant’s primary interaction with the world is through the mouth. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. If this need is not met, the child may develop an oral fixation later in life, examples of which include thumb-sucking, smoking, fingernail biting and overeating.
Anal Stage
1 to 3 years Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. Toilet training is a primary issue with children and parents. Too much pressure can result in an excessive need for order or cleanliness later in life, while too little pressure from parents can lead to messy or destructive behavior later in life.
Phallic Stage
3 to 6 years Freud suggested that the primary focus of the id’s energy is on the genitals. According to Freud, boy’s experience an Oedipal Complex and girl’s experience and Electra Complex, or an attraction to the opposite sex parent. To cope with this conflict, children adopt the values and characteristics of the same-sex parent, thus forming the superego.
latent stage
6 to 11 years During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id’s energies are suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family.
genital stage
11 to 18 yearsThe onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During this stage, people develop a strong interest in the opposite. If development has been successful to this point, the individual will continue to develop into a well-balanced person.
