Research Flashcards
empirical research where the data are not in the form of numbers but rather could not be based on observations
Qualitative research
empirical means based on observation or experience
Gathers and analyzes data in numerical form. This research can be used to find patterns and averages as well as make predictions
Quantitative research
quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. They also don’t allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions may have for those participants
Limitations in context
Poor knowledge of application of statistical analysis may negatively affect the subsequent interpretation
Limitations in researcher expertise
Larger sample size are needed for more accurate analysis
small scales are less reliable because of low quantity of data
Limitations in variability of data quantity
The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on theory of hypothesis generation.
Limitations in confirmation bias
characteristics of quantitative research
structured research instruments, based on larger sample sizes, replicated, clearly defined research question, carefully designed, arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual forms.
Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical and since statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as scientifically objective, and rational
- Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.
Scientific objectivity (Strength)
Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data analysis, especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).
Rapid analysis (Strength)
Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by others because numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation. Hypotheses can also be tested because of the used of statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).
Replication (Strength)
Types of Quantitative Research
Descriptive
Correlational
Quasi-Experimental
Experimental
Experimental Quantitative designs
True Experimental, Quasi experimental, pre-experimental
Pre test & post test control design
Post test-only control group design
True Experimental
Non equivalent control group design
Time-series design
Quasi experimental
One-shot case study
One-group pre test post test design
Pre experimental
a type of Non-experimental quantitative design
Descriptive
Types of descriptive
Survey, correlational, ex-post facto studies, comparative, evaluative, methodological
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Randomization, control and manipulation
Participants being assigned to either receive (experimental group) or not receive (control group), the treatment condition or intervention
Randomization
is the process of maneuvering the IV, so that its effect on the dependent variable (DV) can be observed/measured.
Manipulation
In single case study, that studies at once, following a treatment or an agent presumed to cause change.
The carefully studied single instance is compared to general expectations of what the case would have looked like had the treatment not occurred and to other events casually observed.
The study design has a total absence of control; it is considered to be little value as an experiment
One-Shot Case Study
When to use Non-Experimental Design?
The research is about a single variable.
The research question is about a non-causal statistical relationship between variables
The research question can be about a causal relationship but the IV cannot be manipulated.
The research question is broad and exploratory.
Identifies the sample and the population, collects data through questionnaires or interviews, and draws conclusions or makes inferences about the population
Useful design to use to collect data quickly and economically, study attitudes and opinions, and survey geographically dispersed individuals
SURVEY
In some educational situations, neither the treatment nor the ability to manipulate the conditions are conducive to an experiment.
Does not describe a “cause and effect” but the degree of association between two or more variables or sets of scores.
Can have a positive, negative or no __________
CORRELATIONAL
Literally means “from after the fact”
Data collection occurs after the fact – examine the effect and look back in time to determine the cause (retrospective)
EX-POST FACTO
Examine the differences between two groups on some dependent variable of interest.
COMPARATIVE STUDIES
Concerned with the development testing and evaluation of research instruments and methods.
METHODOLOGICAL
-is not only something that we measure, but also something that we can manipulate and something we can control for.
-A characteristic that changes or varies overtime and/or for different individuals or subjects under consideration.
-are measurable attributes or characteristics that can vary of different scenario.
-serve as a basis for collecting, organizing, presenting, analyzing and interpreting data in quantitative research.
VARIABLE
-That cause changes in phenomenon or situation.
-Also called as treatment, manipulated, or predictor variables.
-Variable that the researcher changes or manipulates to see its effect to the other variable, the dependent variable respectively.
Independent Variables
(cause)(experimental or predictor)
-Effects brought by the independent variable.
-Referred as to outcome, effect, or response variable. It is sometimes called criterion variable.
-Variable that the researcher wanted to measure.
-The changes in this variable is the main focus of the researcher in the study.
Dependent Variables
(effect)
-Variables that links between the dependent and independent variables.
-Certain phenomena in which, without these variable there will be no observed significant effect to the dependent variable from the
independent variable.
Intervening Variables
-Independent variable which precede other independent variables.
-Variables which affect the link between the cause, connecting, and effect variables.
Antecedent Variable
-Changes the strength or direction of an effect between two variables.
-In other words, it affects the relationship between the independent variable and a dependent variable.
-can be qualitative (non-numerical values like race, socioeconomic class or sex) or quantitative (numerical values like weight, reward level or age).
Moderating Variable
Variables that are not being studied but could affect the results of the experiment
Extraneous Variable
produce data that can be categorized according to similarities or differences.
Qualitative (categorical) variables
Measure a numerical quantity or amount on each experimental unit.
Quantitative (numerical) Variables
Two kinds of Quantitative (numerical) Variables
> Discrete variable
Continuous Variable
-Can assume only a finite or countable number of distinct possible values
-Value is obtained by counting.
-example: class size, tickets sold, number of errors in a quiz
DISCRETE VARIABLE
-Can take any value in either a finite or infinite range
-Value is obtained by measuring
-example: Interest rate in %, weight in kg, volume in liters, time to complete an exam
CONTINUOUS VARIABLE
Scale (levels) of measurement
-Nominal or categorical scale
-Binary variable
-Ordinal or ranking scale
-Interval scale
-Ratio scale
Values are categories (e.g. eye color, texture, gender, employee number, religion)
Nominal or Categorical Scale
nominal variable having just two possible categories (e.g. presence or absence of pain)
-ex: presence or absence of pain
Binary variable
-Numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic.
-It allows you to determine whether an object has more or less but not how much more or less
-ex: Likert scale: 1-strongly agree, 2-agree, 3-neutral, 4-disgree, 5-strongly disagree
Ordinal or Ranking Scale
-Numerically equal distances on the scale represent values in characteristic being measured.
-There is a constant or equal interval between scale values.
-Zero point is arbitrary (artificial)
ex: temperature on the Celsius or Fahrenheit scales/altitude measures
Interval Scale
The number 0 has an absolute empirical meaning.
ex: Mass/weight in ounces, pounds, or kilograms
Height/length in meters, inches or feet
Temperature in Kelvin scale
Ratio Scale
Guidelines in Choosing a Research Topic
- Interest in the subject matter
- Availability of information
- Timeliness and relevance of the topic
- Limitations on the subject
- Personal resources
Research Topics to be Avoided
- Controversial topics
- Highly technical subjects
- Hard-to-investigate subjects
- Too broad subjects
- Too narrow subjects
- Vague subjects
Sources of Research Topics
- Mass media communication
- Books, internet, peer-reviewed journals, government publications
- Professional periodicals
- General periodicals
- Previous reading assignments
- Work experience
- Broader Area
- Do not portray what your study intend to do?
- Convey a message
- Do not reflect the purpose of the study?
Research topic
- Summarizes the main idea of the study.
- Understand the purpose of the study?
- Includes the key variables of the study.
Research title
ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH TITLE
Realistic, Measurability, Current, Relevance, Repetitiveness, Causality and Destination, Usual jargon, Number of words
as a researcher, you need to view your work from a practical point of view.
Realistic
your title is achievable in context.
Measurability
A good research title should be acceptable in the present time.
Current
a good topic shows the expertise of the researcher. It also presents the significance of the overall ideas of the study undertaken.
Relevance
It’s important to consider having a topic that has not been done and published previously, not unless you’re doing a review and even with that you need to tweak it a little.
Repetitiveness
it’s very important to show the cause and effect relationship in your study as well as the destination focus or rather unit of study straight from the topic.
Causality and Destination
Avoid common words in your title such as “influence of,” “factors affecting,” and etcetera. Be unique with your title.
Usual jargon
Try to limit it from 10 to 15 substantive words only.
Number of words
ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH TITLE
Use current nomenclature from the field of study.
ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH TITLE
Make titles in a form of a phrase, but you can also create one in the form of a question.
ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH TITLE
Use correct grammar and right capitalization. Words such as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs should be capitalized.
Is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated or filling the gap in literature.
Research Problem
-Provides an area to focus on regarding the research problem.
-Specific questions that the researcher wants to answer to address the research problems.
Research Questions
Presenting Written Statement of the Problem
It should be feasible, clear, significant, and ethical. It is composed of problem statement and specific research questions.
Importance of the Research Questions
-Guide the literature search.
-Guide on what research design is applicable.
-Guide on the collection of data.
-Analyzing and presenting data.
-Limit the scope of the study to avoid research from going off in different directions.
-Provide a clear sense of the research objective.
Formulating Research Questions
- Identify a broad topic you’re interested in
- Select a specific research problem you want to investigate under the topic area
- Narrow down the research problem and capture it in a single main research question
- Break down the main research question to sub-questions
Common Types of Research Questions in Quantitative Research
Descriptive, comparative, relational, causal
seek to objectively describe characteristics of the variable included in the study.
Descriptive
compare two or more characteristics or attributes of two or more persons, group, institutions, or phenomenon.
comparative
understand the relationship between two or more variables.
Relational
When a study is designed to determine whether one or more variables causes or affects one or more outcome variables.
Causal
describes the coverage of the study. It specifies what is covered in
terms of concept, number of subjects or the population included in the study, as well as the timeline when the study was
conducted.
Scope
composed of written indicators and data elements of the coverage, limitations, and its context to build the integrity of a research project. The contextualization of ________ is referred to the operation (operate and use) and selection (basis of selection) of indicators and its data elements to increase the integrity of a research paper.
Scope and delimitations
are citing factors or variables that are not to be included and the boundary in terms of time frame, number of subjects, participants or respondents who are excluded. Specify that which you will not deal within the study. Normally under control of the researcher. Formulating Research questions delimits the research topic to specific area
Delimitation
