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Biomedicine 1 > Reproductive system > Flashcards

Reproductive system Flashcards

1
Q

Reproduction

A

The production of new offspring. Can be either A-sexual or Sexual

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2
Q

Reproduction:
A-sexual

A

Involves mitosis and formation of a clone

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3
Q

Reproduction: Sexual

A

Involves meiosis and fertilisation. Produces male (sperm) and female (ova) sex cell (gametes), which are haploid cells (23 chromosomes). Offspring has a mix of genes from each parent = genetic variability

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4
Q

Reproduction; fertilisation

A

Fertilisation; ova and sperm join together and creates a zygote = 46 chromosomes (23 from sperm and 23 from ova)

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5
Q

Reproductive systems: Functions (female)

A

Female:
1. Formation of ova (female gametes)
2. Reception of spermatozoa (male gametes)
3. Provide suitable environment for fertilsation/foetus
4. Parturition (childbirth)
5. Lactation

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6
Q

Reproductive systems: Functions (male)

A

Male:
1. Production of spermatozoa (male gametes)
2. Transmission of spermatozoa to the female

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7
Q

Female reproduction system; anatomical components

A
  • Breasts (mammary glands)
  • Uterus
  • Fallopian tube
  • Ovaries
  • Cervix
  • Vagina
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8
Q

Female reproduction system; Mammary glands

A
  • Accessory glands of the female reproductive system. Breast are mammary glands = modified sweat glands; exocrine glands that specialise in the production and ejection of milk.
  • Provide nourishment and nutrients to a baby.
  • Enlarge with influence of oestrogen (pregnancy and puberty)
  • Each mammary gland consists of 15-20 lobes, which contain clusters of glands called alveoli.
  • Suspensory ligaments support the breast between skin and underlying fascia.
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9
Q

Female reproduction system; Lactation

A
  • Contraction of myoepithelial cells (which surround glands and are surrounding by alveoli)) propel milk from glandular cells (stimulated by Oxytocin).
  • Prolactin stimulates milk production (after birth)
  • Oxytocin causes milk ejection when stimulated by sucking
  • Both prolactin and oxytocin = lactation
  • Oestrogen = develops breast tissue
  • Milk can be stored in lactiferous sinuses (cavity)
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10
Q

Female reproduction system; Uterus function

A

Serves as
1. a pathway for sperm
2. the site of zygote implantation
3. Location for foetal development
4. Contracts to initiate labour.

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11
Q

Female reproduction system; Uterus parts / shape / position

A

The uterus;
* Is the size and shape of an inverted pear
* Consists of the body, fundus and cervix.
* Is held in place by ligaments such as the broad ligament
* Is situated between the bladder (anteriorly) and rectum (posteriorly)
* The cervix is the narrowed inferior portion that leads to the vagina
* Position – the bladder sits most anteriorly, while the uterus flexes over the bladder and the rectum is posterior to the uterus. The ovaries are located in the pelvic cavity lateral to the uterus.

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12
Q

Female reproduction system; Uterus walls

A

Uterine wall has three layers:
1. Perimetrium; outer layer (visceral peritoneum)
2. Myometrium; three smooth muscle layers (thickest layer)
3. Endometrium; highly vascular inner layer, divided into;
* Stratum functionalis; sloughs off during menses
* Stratum basalis; permanent deeper layer that regenerates the stratum functionalis
(Peri = outer portion, myo = muscle, endo = within, -metrium = relating to uterus, stratum = layer)

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13
Q

Female reproduction system: Uterus walls; Endometrium

A

Highly vascularised inner layer of the uterus.
* During menses, the stratum functionalis sheds, leaving behind the stratum basalis. After shedding, the endometrium re-builds to prepare for implantation of a fertilised egg
* If the egg is fertilised, the zygote is embedded in the endometrium
* In the first 8 weeks, the embedded zygote is an embryo. After 8 weeks it becomes a foetus.
* Oestrogen builds the endometrium and progesterone maintains it

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14
Q

Female reproduction system: Placenta

A

The site of exchange of nutrients and wastes between the mother and foetus’ blood, attached to the endometrium. The placenta;
* Produces hormones that are required to maintain pregnancy and prepare for labour
* Contains two distinct regions (At 12 weeks) – maternal and foetal side – mothers and foetal circulation are separated by a membrane)
* Is unique because it develops from two individuals (maternal part from endometrium)
* Is the connection between placenta and embryo/foetus is through the umbilical cord (50-60cm)

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15
Q

Female reproduction system: Placenta barrier

A

The placenta allows oxygen and nutrients to diffuse from maternal blood into foetal blood, whilst carbon dioxide and wastes move in the opposite direction.
Provides a protective barrier – most micro-organisms cannot pass through it. Some organisms such as HIV, measles and polio (viruses are smaller).
* Alcohol and drugs can pass freely and cause birth defects
* Stress hormones can pass over it and cause harm
* Blood cells cannot cross the placenta (two separate circulations)
* Nutrient transfer to the foetus is mediated by proteins called nutrient transporters.

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16
Q

Female reproduction system: Placenta hormones

A

The placenta produces the following hormones:
1. Progesterone:
2. Oestrogen:
3. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG):
4. Human Placental Lactogen (hPL)
5. Relaxin:
6. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH):
N/B The pituitary hormones (FSH, LH) control the ovaries, the ovarian hormones (Oestrogen, progesterone) control the uterus.

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17
Q

Female reproduction system: Placenta hormones; progesterone

A
  1. Progesterone:
    * Maintains endometrial lining to sustain and nourish the foetus
    * Produced by the corpus luteum
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18
Q

Female reproduction system: Placenta hormones; oestrogen

A
  1. Oestrogen:
    * Promotes growth of breast tissue and myometrium
    * Produced by corpus luteum until 8 weeks
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19
Q

Female reproduction system: Placenta hormones; Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)

A
  1. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG):
    * Only produced during pregnancy (test!)
    * Maintains corpus luteum for 8 weeks and increases transfer of nutrients to foetus
    * Related to morning sickness
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20
Q

Female reproduction system: Placenta hormones; Human Placental Lactogen (hPL)

A
  1. Human Placental Lactogen (hPL)
    * Increase the amount of glucose & lipids in maternal blood
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21
Q

Female reproduction system: Placenta hormones; Relaxin

A
  1. Relaxin:
    * Targets ligaments and relaxes them.
    * Produced by the corpus luteum and placenta
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22
Q

Female reproduction system: Placenta hormones; Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)

A
  1. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH):
    * Triggers release of cortisol from the adrenals
    * Prevents rejection of foetus / placenta (immunosuppressant)
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23
Q

Female reproduction system: Placenta complications - types

A

Three types of complications;
1. Placenta Praevia
2. Placenta Accreta
3. Placenta Abruption

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24
Q

Female reproduction system: Placenta complications; Placenta Praevia

A
  1. Placenta Praevia: Occurs when placenta attaches to the lower part of the uterine wall, potentially occluding the opening of the cervix.
    * Risk with multiple births – more placentas
    * 1st trimester can resolve itself – uterus stretches
    * 2nd or 3rd trimester prone to haemorage . Wall of cervix stretches and can detach from the placenta. Uterine vessesl can rupture, often presenting as painless, ante-partum vaginal bleeding
    * Treatment depends on the condition of the baby & mother. C-section preferred.
    (previa = going before
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25
Q

Female reproduction system: Placenta complications; Placenta Accreta

A
  1. Placenta Accreta: Abnormally deep attachment of the placenta through the endometrium into the myometrium
    * If invades myometrium = increta. If through uterine wall to viscera such as bladder = percreta.
    * Due to inadequate (thin) basalis layer of endometrium. The placenta has to ‘dig deeper’ when implanting
    * Occurs due to; C-section, curettage (scraping procedure), fibroid removal or placenta praevia
    * Risk of post-partum haemorrhage
    (accrete = to grow, percreta = overgrown)
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26
Q

Female reproduction system: Placenta complications; Placenta Abruption

A
  1. Placental abruption: Rupture of blood vessels adhering the placenta to the uterine wall leading to separation of the placenta from the uterus.
    * Risk factors include smoking and maternal hypertension (pre-eclampsia)
    * Presents as abdominal pain and ante-partum bleeding
    * An obstretic emergency after 20 weeks:
    - >30 weeks: Delivery
    - <30 weeks and stable vitals monitor until baby is old enough to safely deliver. Mature foetal
    (ante = before, partum = childbirth)
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27
Q

Twins

A

Siblings that result from the same pregnancy. Two types: Monozygotic (identical) and Dizygotic (non-identical)
(mono = one, di = two, zygote = fertilised egg)

28
Q

Twins; Monozygotic

A
  1. Monozygotic (30%)
    * Identical twins (same genetic information)
    * Originate from a single fertilized ovum (one egg, one sperm)
    * The zygote splits into two embryos but share one placenta.
29
Q

Twins; Dizygotic

A
  1. Dizygotic (70%)
    * Non identical
    * Release of two ova & fertilization of each. Implanted independently.
    * Two eggs, two sperms
    * Two different placentas.
30
Q

Female reproduction system: Fallopian (uterine) tubes

A

Fallopian (uterine) tubes extend laterally from the uterus (10 cm).
* Tubes provide a route for sperm to meet the ova and for the (fertilised) ova to reach the uterus
* Fimbriae (finger like projections) surround the ovary and ‘sweep the ova’ into the fallopian tube
* The tubes are lined with ciliated columnar epithelium, which help move the ova towards the uterus
* Smooth muscle layer performs peristalsis to assist ova movement

31
Q

Female reproduction system: Ovaries

A

Ovaries = the female gonads (paired glands)
* Shape & size resemble almonds (atrophy after menopause)
* The ovarian ligament anchors them to the uterus, the broad ligament assists in maintaining the position of the ovaries
* Produce female gametes (secondary oocytes’ via oogenesis)
* Secrete sex hormones; oestrogen and progesterone

32
Q

Female reproduction system: Oogenesis - Pre-pubertal

A

Oogenesis is referring to the formation of female gametes (ova) in the ovaries
* Oogenesis begins in the foetus
* Primary oocytes are formed in germ cells during foetal development
* The formation of primary oocytes stops at birth (20,000-2,000,000)
* Primary oocytes are surrounded by a layer of follicular cells (primordial follicle = entire structure)
* During a women’s reproductive lifetime, 400 follicles will mature and ovulate. The remainder will degenerate
(germ cell = an embryonic cell capable of becoming a gamete, oo = egg, genesis = formation)

33
Q

Female reproduction system: Oogenesis - Post-pubertal

A

Every month anterior pituitary hormones stimulate the development of a primordial follicle into a mature ovum
* FSH stimulates maturation of the primordial follicles  primary follicles  secondary follicles  mature follicle
* A surge of LH triggers ovulation – release of the ovum (secondary oocyte)
* The remains of the ovarian follicle (follicular cells) that has ovulated becomes the corpus luteum – produces progesterone and some oestrogen
* The corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans if no fertilisation. If fertilisation occurs hCG prevents degradation of the corpus luteum.
* Rapid maturation during final stages takes 14 days but maturation from primordial follicle  mature follicle takes 10-12 months
* FSH drives development of the most mature follicle into a mature ovum

34
Q

Female reproduction system: Menstrual cycle

A

Four phases of the menstrual cycle:
1. Menstrual phase (day 1-5)
2. Pre-ovulatory phase (day 6-13)
3. Ovulation (day 14)
4. Post ovulatory phase
The menstrual cycle lasts 24-35 days. 28 days is average

35
Q

Female reproduction system: Menstrual cycle; phase 1

A
  1. Menstrual phase (day 1-5) = Menstruation
    * In the uterus; endometrium is being shed in response to a sudden drop in progesterone
    * In ovaries; Follicles are developing under the influence of FSH
    * Key hormone = FSH
36
Q

Female reproduction system: Menstrual cycle; phase 2

A
  1. Pre-ovulatory phase (day 6-13) = Between end of menses and ovulation
    * In the uterus; the endometrium thickens in response to rising oestrogen levels
    * In ovaries; Follicle starts to mature; secrete oestrogen. Follicles secrete inhibin which decreases the secretion of FSH. This stops other follicles developing.
    * Key hormone = Oestrogen
37
Q

Female reproduction system: Menstrual cycle; phase 3

A
  1. Ovulation phase (Day 14) = Release of the egg
    * Ovulation tests work by detecting rising levels of LH
    * In ovaries; High oestrogen levels create a positive feedback loop, stimulating LH secretion. LH causes rupture of the mature follicle and expulsion of the egg = ovulation
    * Key hormone = LH
38
Q

Female reproduction system: Menstrual cycle; phase 4

A
  1. Post-ovulatory phase (days 15-28) = Between ovulation and next menses
    * The corpus luteum is now essential in establishing and maintaining pregnancy
    * The corpus luteum forms from the follicle wall and produces progesterone and some oestrogen. These maintain endometrium in preparation for pregnancy.
    * Key hormone = Progesterone
39
Q

Female reproduction system: Fertilised ova

A
  1. Zygote embeds in uterine wall
  2. Human Chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) (produced by the embryo) maintains / stimulates corpus luteum to produce progesterone and oestrogen.
  3. After a few weeks, placenta takes over the role of producing hCG and progesterone, maintaining pregnancy
40
Q

Female reproduction system: Non fertilised ova

A
  1. After 14 days the corpus luteum degenerates into the corpus albicans
  2. Levels of progesterone and oestrogen drop and a new cycle starts with menstruation
41
Q

Puberty (females)

A

The period when the potential for sexual reproduction is reached.
* Occurs between 10-14 years
* Onset is marked by pulses of LH and FSH, triggered by a burst of Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
* As puberty advances, hormones pulses occur during day as well as night, increasing over 3-4 years
* Internal reproduction organs reach maturity  menarche
* Breast development, hair growth (pubic, axillary, legs), hips widen (fat deposited in hips & breasts), voice deepens

42
Q

Menopause

A

Permanent cessation of menstruation for 12 consecutive months
* Occurs at 45-55 years
* Occurs as a result of ‘ovarian ageing’= the number of follicles become exhausted
*  Oestrogen production = decline in ovulation =  progesterone production
*  oestrogen and progesterone affect negative feedback leading to high FSH and LH levels
* Menopause can be surgically induced following hysterectomy

43
Q

Menopause signs and symptoms

A
  • Hot flushes and increased sweating
  • Vaginal dryness and atrophy of mucosal lining = painful intercourse
  • Xerostomia (dryness in mouth)
  • Increased risk of UTI’s due to due to urogenital atrophy
  • Mood changes, irritability, anxiety (fluctuating hormones)
  • Decreased libido and sleep disturbances
  • Breast shrinkage. Sparse public and axillary hair
  • Osteoporosis (loss of oestrogen =  osteoblasts)

N/B: Not a pathology, it’s a physiology process that can produce a variety of symptoms.

44
Q

Menopause; HRT

A

HRT can be used to relieve menopausal symptoms and reduce the risk of osteoporosis, but only delays menopause.
HRT increases risk of breast and endometrial cancer, heart disease, stroke and DVT.

45
Q

Menopause; Natural approaches

A

Natural approaches:
Herbal medicine; many herbs help with menopause; e.g. Dong Quai, Red clover, Liquorice, Black Cohosh
Diet; Foods high in phytoestrogens, managing glucose levels (hypoglycaemia , hot flushes), sage, avoid caffeine
Encourage regular exercise, reduce stress, use a fan
Homeopathy and acupuncture

46
Q

Male reproductive system: anatomical components

A

The male reproductive system consists of:
* Two testes (where sperm is produced)
* Two epididymides (where sperm matures and is stored)
* Two vas / ducti deferens (tubes/ducts that sperm from the testicle to the urethra)
* Two spermatic cords (tubes plus blood vessels – supply testicles with oxygenated blood)
* Two seminal vesicles (input some of the key secretions involved in male ejaculate)
* Two ejaculatory ducts
* One prostate gland (surrounds male urethra)
* One penis (main organ discharging sperm)

47
Q

Male reproductive system: Penis

A

Consists of a root (within pelvic cavity) and body. Urethral canal has both reproductive and urinary functions
Body consists of:
* Thee cylindrical masses of erectile tissue
* Fills with blood during sexual arousal (and REM sleep)
* Contains the enlarged ending (glans penis)
* Erectile tissue and involuntary muscle are stimulated by the parasympathetic nervous system – produces nitric oxide that causes vasodilation

48
Q

Male reproductive system: Testes

A

The testes develop in the pelvic cavity (near the kidneys) and descend into the scrotum via the inguinal canals between 7-9 months utero.
* Site of spermatogenesis; In the seminiferous tubules (takes 70 days). Regulated by FSH
* Site of testosterone production and secretion; from cholesterol in the ‘Leydig cells’. Regulated by LH.
* Each testis divided into 200-300 lobules. Each lobule contains seminiferous tubules.
* Spermatozoa mature and are stored in the epididymis
* Muscles in testes help propel sperm into epididymis to mature and store them
(Spermato = sperm, genesis = formation/creation)

49
Q

Male reproductive system: Sperm

A

300 million produced each day by spermatogenesis.
* Can live for several months in the epididymis
* Normally 100 million per ml/ ejaculate
* Spermatogenesis occurs best 3’C below body temp
Sperms have a head, body and tail;
* Head filled with nucleus (n)
* Acrosome is a vesicle covering the head of the sperm that contains enzymes to penetrate the egg
* Body filled with mitochondria to fuel tail
* Tail to swim

50
Q

Male reproductive system: Ejaculate

A

Spermatozoa are expelled from the epididymis through the vas deferens and into the ejaculatory duct where seminal fluid is secreted and mixed with sperm. Two glands produce seminal fluid;
1. Seminal vesicles
2. Prostate gland:
Seminal fluid is alkaline to protect sperm from urethral and vaginal acidity. Sperm compromises only 10% of semen.

51
Q

Male reproductive system: Ejaculate; seminal vesicles

A
  1. Seminal vesicles:
    * A pair of glands located behind the bladder
    * Secrete alkaline seminal fluid (60% of semen)
    * Nutrients (e.g. fructose) to nourish sperm
52
Q

Male reproductive system: Ejaculate; prostate gland

A
  1. Prostate gland:
    * Secretes thin milky fluid - 30% of semen
    * Contains nutrients for ATP production and anticoagulants to  fluidity; citric acid, proteolytic enzymes; prostate specific antigen (PSA), pepsinogen
    (proteo- = proteins, -lytic = breakdown)
53
Q

Male reproductive system: Ejaculate; Bulbourethral glands

A

Bulbourethral glands (Cowper’s Glands);
* Secrete an alkaline, mucous fluid that neutralizes urinary acids in the urethra prior to ejaculation and lubricates the end of the penis
* During sexual arousal contraction of smooth muscles in the epididymis and vas deferens propels sperm into ejaculatory ducts
* Muscles surrounding the base of the urethra cause semen to eject out of the penis during orgasm

54
Q

Case history considerations

A
  • Menstruation; bleeding time & cycle, amount of blood flow, duration, blood quality
  • Breasts; tenderness, galactorrhea
  • Relationship of symptoms to cycle
  • Hirsutism and acne
  • Problems with intercourse
  • Altered libido & impotence
  • Past and future fertility plans
  • Operations
  • Methods of contraception used
  • Additional symptoms e.g. urinary problems
  • Family history
    (Hirsutism = male pattern hair growth in women)
55
Q

Reproductive terminology: menarche

A
  • Menarche; the age of the first period
56
Q

Seminal fluid

A

Two glands produce seminal fluid;
1. Seminal vesicles
2. Prostate gland:
Seminal fluid is alkaline to protect sperm from urethral and vaginal acidity. Sperm compromises only 10% of semen.

57
Q

Reproductive terminology; metrorrhagia

A
  • Metrorrhagia; Mid-cycle bleeding
58
Q

Reproductive terminology; menorrhagia

A
  • Menorrhagia; increased menstrual bleeding
59
Q

Reproductive terminology; amenorrhoea

A
  • Amenorrhoea; absence of periods
60
Q

Reproductive terminology: dysmenorrhoea

A
  • Dysmenorrhoea; painful periods
61
Q

Reproductive terminology;
Polymenorrhea

A
  • Polymenorrhea; short cycle, frequent periods
62
Q

Reproductive terminology: oligomenorrhea

A
  • Oligomenorrhea; infrequent cycles
63
Q

Reproductive terminology; galactorrhoea

A
  • Galactorrhoea; lactation without pregnancy
64
Q

Reproductive terminology; dyspareunia

A
  • Dyspareunia; pain on intercourse (female)
65
Q

Reproductive terminology; gynaecomastia

A
  • Gynaecomastia; presence of enlarged breast tissue in a male.
66
Q

Reproductive terminology

A

(a-= absence, dys- = abnormal/bad, poly = many, oligo = few, -rrhagia = excessive flow, menorrhoea = menses)

Biomedicine 1 (39 decks)

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