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Biomedicine 1 > Nervous system 1 > Flashcards

Nervous system 1 Flashcards

1
Q

The nervous system

A

A network of fibres which span the body, coordinating a diverse range of voluntary and involuntary actions.
* Transmits signals between part of the body
* Rapidly responds to changes within the internal and external environment
* Works alongside the endocrine system to maintain homeostasis
* Contains two main divisions 1) Central nervous system (CNS) and Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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2
Q

The nervous system; function – key areas

A

Three key areas:
1. Sensory
2. Integration
3. Motor

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3
Q

Functions - sensory

A

Sensory function:
* Detects internal and external environmental changes (e.g. proprioception, sensation / touch)
* Impulse carried by sensory neurons

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4
Q

Functions - Integration

A

Integration function:
* Processes sensory information by analysing, storing and making decisions
* Abundant in the brain (‘perception’)
* Impulse carried by interneurons

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5
Q

Functions – motor

A

Motor function:
* Processes a response to sensory information (perception) to effect change
* Impulse carried by motor neurons

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6
Q

The nervous system; 2 Divisions

A

The nervous system contains two main divisions:
1) Central nervous system (CNS): Consists of brain and spinal cord
2) Peripheral nervous system (PNS): Peripheral nervous system (PNS): Peripheral nerves (nerves not in the CNS e.g. arms and legs)

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7
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A
  • The Peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all nervous tissue located outside the CNS
  • The PNS can be further subdivided into
    1) The somatic nervous system
    2) The autonomic nervous system
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8
Q

Peripheral nervous system – somatic nervous system

A

The somatic nervous system
* Controls voluntary muscles & transmits sensory information to the CNS.
* Conveys sensory information from head, limbs etc. and motor signals to skeletal muscles only (hence voluntary)

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9
Q

Peripheral nervous system – autonomic nervous system

A

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) works automatically and involuntarily to maintain homeostasis
* The hypothalamus is the highest control centre over autonomic motor neurons
* Affects organs, glands, cardiac and smooth muscles

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10
Q

Peripheral nervous system – autonomic nervous system branches

A

There are two branches;
1) Sympathetic:
* ‘Fight or flight’ response
* Thoraco-lumbar innervation
2) Parasympathetic:
* ‘Rest and digest’
* Cranio-sacral innervation

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11
Q

Peripheral nervous system – autonomic nervous system - sympathetic NS

A

The sympathetic & parasympathetic divisions have opposite effects e.g. parasympathetic activity increases GIT peristalsis & secretions, sympathetic activity reduces it

Sympathetic:
Eye (pupil; Dilation
Lungs; Bronchodilation
Heart; Heat rate & blood pressure increased
Gastrointestinal Tract; Decreased motility and secretions
Liver; Conversion of glycogen to glucose
Adrenal glands; Releases adrenaline

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12
Q

Enteric Nervous system

A

The ‘brain’ of the GIT, containing around 100 million neurons
* Functions independently but regulated by the autonomic nervous system
* Links with the CNS via the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibres (vagus nerve) – involuntary

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13
Q

Enteric Nervous system; neurons

A
  1. Sensory neurons monitor chemical changes (via chemo-receptors) in the GI tract and stretching (stretch receptors) of its walls
  2. Motor neurons govern motility & secretions of the GIT & associated glands
  3. Interneurons connect the two plexuses
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14
Q

Histology; Neuron cells (types)

A

Nervous tissue contains two types of cells:
1. Neurons
2. Neurolglia (glial cells)

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15
Q

Histology; Neuron

A
  1. Neurons (10% brain volume)
    * Neurons process and transmit information.
    * Structural and functional units of the nervous system. They are electrically excitable.
    * Lots of different types of neurons (most diverse cell in the body)
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16
Q

Histology; Neuroglia (glial cells)

A
  1. Neuroglia (glial cells) (90% brain volume):
    * Glial cells are supporting cells that nourish, support and protect neurons.
    * There are 6 types of glial cell (4 found in CNS & 2 found in PNS)
    * More numerous than neurons, making up 90% of brain volume)
    (Glia = glue)
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17
Q

Histology: Nerves and Neurons

A

A ‘nerve’ is a bundle of one or more neurons

  • Neurons possess electrical excitability: The ability to create a nerve impulse or ‘action potential’

Neurons can contain the following parts:
- Cell body and dendrites
- Axon
- Myelin sheath and nodes of Ranvier
- Terminal endings

  • A stimulus is anything able to generate an action potential. The stimulus can be internal or external.
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18
Q

Histology: Neurons; cell body and dendrites

A

Cell bodies consists of a nucleus and cell organelles
* Cell bodies are known collectively as grey matter
* Collections of cell bodies clustered together are referred to as
- Nuclei in the CNS – form structural & functional groups in the brain
- Ganglia in the PNS
* Dendrites are the receiving portion of the cell. They communicate with other neurons / dentrites
(Dentrites = little trees)

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19
Q

Histology: Neurons; Axons

A

Axons are long, thin cylindrical projections that carry nerve impulses towards another neuron, away from the cell body.
* Length varies from <1mm (in CNS) to approx. 1m (sciatic nerve)
* Axons are covered by a membrane called the axolemma
* The ends are called axon terminals
* Axon bundles are called tracts in the CNS and nerves in the PS.
* If injured, axons can regenerate at a rate of 1-2mm per day

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20
Q

Histology: Neurons; Myelin sheath

A

A multi-layered lipid & protein covering around the axons.
* The myelin sheath electrically insulates the axon and increases the speed of nerve conduction
* Formed by glial cells (Schwann cells (PNS) and oligodendrocytes (CNS) in the embryo, continuing through childhood and peaking in adolescence
* Each cell wraps about 1mm of length repeatedly (up to 100 layers) in a myelinated axon
* Gaps in myelin sheath are called nodes of Ranvier
* Vitamin B12 is a co-factor needed for the production of myelin
(Myelin = fat/ protein layering, Sheath = covering)

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21
Q

Histology: Grey and White matter

A

When observing a region of the brain or spinal cord, some regions appear white whilst others appear grey
Grey matter is mostly composed of cell bodies. It also contains dendrites and unmyelinated axons
White matter is composed primarily of myelinated axons. The whitish colour of myelin is what gives the region its name

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22
Q

Histology: Neuroglia

A

Neuroglia (glial cells) are non-excitatory. They surround and bind neurons. Neurons would not function without glial cells.
* Glial cells are far smaller than neurons but 50x more prevalent. They can multiply and divide (unlike neurons)
* After trauma, glia fill spaces left by damaged neurons (an important concept with growth of tumours  ‘gliomas’)
Functions:
* Surround neurons and hold them in place
* Supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons
* Destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons

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23
Q

Histology: Neuroglia cell types:

A

There are six types of neuroglia
* Four in the CNS; Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia & ependymal cells
* Two in the PNS; Schwann cells and satellite cells

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24
Q

Histology: Neuroglia in CNS; Astrocytes

A

Astrocytes:
* Star shaped with branching processes
* Most numerous and largest neuroglia (in CNS)
* Hold neurons to their blood supply (physical support)
* Contribute to the blood brain barrier (wrap around blood vessels to form a barrier)

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25
Q

Histology: Neuroglia in CNS; Oligodendrocytes

A

Oligodendrocytes:
Glial cells that myelinate axons in the CNS

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26
Q

Histology: Neuroglia in CNS; Microglia

A

Microglia:
* Derived from monocytes (N/B: micro=macro=monocytes) that migrate to the CNS before birth
* Resident immune cells in brain; ‘Phagocytic’
* Mobile in brain and multiply with damage

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27
Q

Histology: Neuroglia in CNS; Ependymal cells

A

Ependymal cells:
Epithelial cells which line the walls of the:
* Four ventricles of the cerebrum
* Central canal of spinal cord
* Produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and beat their cilia to circulate CSF

28
Q

Histology: Neuroglia in PNS; Schwann cells

A

Schwann cells produce myelin (sheath) around the axons of neurons in the peripheral NS
* This insulates the axon, increases the speed of nerve impulse conduction and participates in axon regeneration
* Most dendrite connections and myelination completed by age of 3. So, malnutrition in infancy = irreversible damage
* The unmyelinated gaps along a neuron are called nodes of Ranvier

29
Q

Histology: Neuroglia in PNS; Satellite cells

A

Satellite cells:
* Surround cell bodies in PNS ganglia, providing structural support and exchange substances

30
Q

Nerve impulses

A

Neurons are electrically excitable
There are two types of electrical signal in a neuron; 1) graded potential and 2) action potential.

Graded and action potentials are facilitated by two characteristics;
1. Specific io channels can open and close when stimulated
2. Electrical difference across the cell membrane (‘resting potential’)

31
Q

Nerve impulses: graded potential

A

Graded potential:
. For short distance communication
. Occur in dendrites and cell body
. Amplitude proportional to strength of stimulus (no threshold)
. Longer duration

32
Q

Nerve impulses; Action potential qualities

A

Action potential:
. For long distance communication
. Propagated down axon
. All-or-nothing (has threshold)
. Shorter duration

33
Q

Nerve impulses; Ion Channels

A

These are transport channels for ions created by transmembrane proteins within neuron membranes
* When ion channels open, they allow specific ions to move through the membrane across a concentration gradient e.g. Na+ channels allow Na+ through
* Channels open in response to a stimulus which changes the permeability of the membrane to Na+ and K+
* Stimuli include changes in voltage, chemicals (hormones), mechanical pressure

34
Q

Nerve impulses; resting potential

A
  • Neurons at rest possess an electrochemical gradient across the cell membrane
  • The resting potential is created by a build-up of negative ions on the inside of the cell membrane, relative to the extracellular fluid which contains more positive ions
  • The separation of charges across a cell membrane creates potential energy
  • This resting potential is approximately -70mV
  • Cells exhibiting a membrane potential are said to be polarised or ‘charged’
  • The extracellular fluid is rich in NA+ and Cl- ions and carries a positive charge.
  • The intracellular fluid is rich in K+ and large negatively charged proteins and phosphates which cannot leave the cell. Thus, carries a negative charge inside the cell
  • As the Na+ and Cl- try to move back to equalise the charge, the separation of charges is maintained by the sodium-potassium pump which pumps 3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ it pumps back in (using ATP – up the concentration gradient)
    (mV = millivolts, Potential = capacity to generate an electrical signal)
35
Q

Nerve impulses; Action potential

A

An action potential is the formation of a nerve impulse
* It is a series of events which reverses the membrane potential and then restores it to its resting state.
* It is then propagated down the axon in an all-or-nothing fashion meaning there is no reduction of the signals as it travels
Occurs in two phases:
1. Depolarisation; The negative membrane potential (-70mV) becomes positive and reaches +30mV
2. Repolarisation: The membrane is then restored to -70mV

36
Q

Nerve impulses: Action potential; Depolarisation

A

Depolarisation is triggered by stimulation of a nerve ending
* Depolarisation must reach a threshold value of -55mv in order to generate an action potential
* Na+ channels open allowing Na+ to flood into the cell up to about +30mV (so at the peak of action potential, the inside of the membrane is 30mV more positive that the outside)
* A positive charge builds up inside the cell

37
Q

Nerve impulses: Action potential; Repolarisation

A
  • K+ channels open much more slowly than Na+ channels so just as Na+ channels are closing, the K+ channels open
  • The allows K+ to flood out of the cell, restoring the membrane potential to -70mV
38
Q

Nerve impulses: Action potential; Refractory period

A

Period of time after repolarisation in which a nerve cannot generate another action potential because Na+ and K+ are on the wrong sides of the membrane.

  • During this period, the Na+-K pump pumps 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ back into the cell to restore the resting potential.
  • Absolute refractory period: Even a strong impulse cannot generate an action potential
  • Relative refractory period: Larger than normal stimulus needed to generate an action potential
39
Q

Unmyelinated Axon

A

‘Conduction’ describes the movement of a nerve impulse along the axon of a neuron.
Unmyelinated axons:
* No myelin sheath around the nerve
* The membrane becomes depolarized in a continuous conduction away from the cell body down the axon
* Step-by-step depolarisation and repolarisation occurs of each adjacent segment of cell membrane. This occurs in one direction only.

40
Q

Myelinated Axons, saltatory conduction and nodes of ranvier

A
  • Myelin is an insulator, preventing ionic currents from crossing the cell membrane.
  • Instead, at the nodes of Ranvier, there are high concentrations of Na+ gates. This causes the current to appear to jump from node to node (‘saltatory conduction’).
  • Action potentials ‘leap’ across long segments of the myelinated axon, leading to much faster conduction.
  • Saltatory conduction is far more energy efficient, as less ATP is needed for the sodium-potassium pumps.
  • Action potentials are also conducted slower at lower temperatures
    (Saltatory = ‘leaping’)
41
Q

Nerve conduction - types

A

Comparisons between continuous and saltatory conductions:
Continuous conduction:
* Unmyelinated
* Step-by-step depolarisation
* Slower
* Less energy efficient
Saltatory conduction:
* Myelinated
* ‘Leaps’ of depolarisation
* Faster
* More energy efficient

42
Q

Synapses

A

Neurons are not continuous and have gaps between them called ‘synapses’.
* The ends of axon terminals are called synaptic end bulbs
* The space between the synaptic end bulbs and post-synaptic neuron is the synaptic cleft, which is filled with interstitial fluid
* The nerve impulse is carried across the synaptic cleft by chemical messengers called ‘neurotransmitters’. These are stored in synaptic vesicles.
* Neurotransmitters can have either excitatory or inhibitory effects on the post-synaptic neuron

43
Q

Synapses; signal

A

A synapse transmits a signal as follows:
1. An action potential arrives at the synaptic end bulb. The depolarisation phase causes calcium (Ca2+) channels to open, sending CA2+ into the synaptic bulb
2. Increase in CA2+ concentration causes exocytosis of synaptic vesicles: Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft.
3. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse and bind to receptors on the post-synaptic neuron
4. This opens the ion channels, generating an action potential in the post-synaptic nerve

44
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

A neurotransmitter (NT) is a chemical messenger that gets released from a pre-synaptic terminal, causing an effect on the post-synaptic cell.
* More than 100 NTs have been identified so far
Neurotransmitters are broadly categorized as:
1. Amino acids e.g. glutamate, GABA (formed from amino acid Glutamine)
2. Monoamines e.g. dopamine, serotonin, adrenaline, noradrenaline
3. Peptides (neuropeptides (proteins)) e.g. endorphins, Substance P
4. Unique molecules e.g. acetylcholine, nitric oxide

45
Q

Neurotransmitters; excitatory and inhibitory

A

One way to classify neurotransmitters is whether they have an excitatory or inhibitory action on the post-synaptic neuron:

Excitatory:
* Causes depolarisation of the post-synaptic neuron
* Opens the Na+ ion channels
* Inner membrane becomes more positive

Inhibitory:
* Causes hyper-polarisation of the post-synaptic neuron
* Opens the K+ ion channels
* Inner membrane becomes more negative

  • Following a nerve impulse, neurotransmitters need to be inactivated and removed for the process to be able to start again. This can occur by diffusion, enzyme breakdown (e.g. MAO) or through re-absorption
46
Q

Neurotransmitters; Glutamate and Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
(Amino acids)

A

Glutamate (glutamic acid) is a major excitatory NT in the CNS. It plays a major role in memory and learning.

GABA is the major inhibitory NT in the brain, produced from glutamate.

  • Glutamate is initially produced from the amino acid glutamine
  • The conversion of glutamate to GABA is vitamin B6 dependent
  • One third of brain synapses use GABA. It is essential in preventing neural over-activity.
  • The drug ‘diazepam’ (Valium) enhances GABA
47
Q

Neurotransmitters; Serotonin
(Monoamines)

A

Serotonin (5-Hydroxytrypamine) is produced from the amino acid ‘tryptophan’.
* 95% of serotonin is produced in the enteric nervous system (digestive tract), whilst the remainder is located in the central nervous system
* Serotonin has a vital role in the GIT. It is involved in intestinal motility (peristalsis) and epithelial cell secretion
* Serotonin also plays a role in attention, sleep and pain regulation.
* Serotonin is removed from a synapse by the enzyme ‘MAO’
A change in serotonin levels is the result of something, NOT the cause.

48
Q

Neurotransmitters; Dopamine
(Monoamines)

A

Dopamine is located in several areas of the brain, including the substantia nigra.
* Synthesised from the amino acid ‘tyrosine’ (body uses tyrosine for many things inc. adrenaline, noradrenaline, melanin, T3 and T4)
* Plays a key role in movement, reward mechanisms, regulating muscle tone, cognition and emotion
* Dopamine also acts as an inhibitor for prolactin release from the anterior pituitary gland
* The removal of dopamine from a synapse is by re-uptake or using the enzymes MAO and COMT
* Dopamine depletion is associated with Parkinson’s disease

49
Q

Neurotransmitters; Adrenaline and Noradrenaline
(Monoamines)

A

Adrenaline and Noradrenaline:
* Type of neurotransmitter = monoamine
* Produced from; Tyrosine
* Primary actions; Excitatory, opens NA+ channels
* Location; Sympathetic NS, motor neurons, brain and adrenal medulla
* Role; Major excitatory neurostransmitter (also hormones). Mobilise the body and brain when in danger
* Removal; Re-uptake or degradation by enzymes monoamine oxidase (MAO) and catechol-oxygen-methyl transferase (COMT)

50
Q

Neurotransmitters; Neuropeptides

A

Neuropeptides are small proteins acting as neurotransmitters and hormones
* Common neuropeptides include endorphins, enkephalins, dynorphins and substance P.
* They may act as neuromodulators – substances that do not propagate nerve impulses directly, but instead exert regulatory effects on synaptic receptors
* Enkephalins, endorphins and dynorphins are opioids (body’s natural analgesics). They are released after exercise
* Substance P enhances the feeling of pain

51
Q

Neurotransmitters; Other

A

Acetylcholine:
* Primary action: Excitatory (inhibits the vagus nerve)
* Location: Major NT in the parasympathetic nervous system, CNS and neuromuscular junction
* Role: Muscle contractions, cognition
* Removal: Degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase
Nitric oxide (NO):
* Primary action: Excitatory
* Formed from: Arginine
* Role: Vasodilation. Exists for less than 10 seconds
* Pharmacology: Used for angina (GTN). Viagra enhances NO.

52
Q

Neurotransmitter Breakdown Enzymes

A

Monoamine oxidase (MAO):
* Found in neurons and astrocytes
* Involved in the breakdown of monoamines
- Serotonin
- Adrenaline
- Noradrenaline
- Dopamine
Catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT):
* Catalyses the breakdown of
- Adrenaline
- Noradrenaline
- Dopamine
St John’s Wort is an MAO inhibitor
Catalyse = to accelerate a chemical reaction

53
Q

Nerve sensation; Touch

A
  • Touch excites a gradual potential in sensory nerve endings (Meissner’s corpuscles)
  • The gradual potential triggers the axon of a sensory neuron to form an action potential which travels into the CNS
  • Neurotransmitters are released at synapses where there are interneurons
  • Perception occurs in the brain (primary somatosensory area) where the interpretation of touch occurs
54
Q

Nerve sensation

A

‘Spinal nerves’ carry impulses to and from the spinal cord. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
The spinal nerve is named based on the spinal level it originates from; e.g. L5
Spinal nerves combine to form named ‘peripheral nerves’, such as the sciatic nerve
If a spinal nerve is injured (e.g. by a disc prolapse, bone spur, tumour), it can cause pain and altered sensation (tingling / numbness) in the associated distribution. This distribution is called a ‘dermatome’.

55
Q

Neuroregeneration

A

Neurons have limited powers of regeneration. These are mostly dependent upon the location:

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
* Peripheral nerve fibres DO regenerate IF Schwann cells and the cell body (nucleus) are intact. This is also dependent on scar tissue present
Central nervous System (CNS):
* CNS fibres CANNOT regenerate. Oligodendrocytes and astrocytes inhibit re-growth, so scar tissue is formed instead.
* After the foetal period there is an absence of growth stimulating factors
* Clean-up of debris is slow (microglia)
* Neuroplasticity (damage to an area of tissues within CNS) = adapt and build new synaptic pathways

56
Q

Applying concepts

A

Each tissue in the body has its own nerve supply (innervation)
* The flow of electricity and health are directly related. Meaning that disruption to nerve signaling would interfere with the health of the structure it supplies (and vice versa)
* Electrical flow means there is an electromagnetic field
* The concept of energy flow is essential. External and internal factors can disrupt the energy (electrical flow).

57
Q

Peripheral nervous system - autonomic nervous system - parasympathetic nervous system

A

The sympathetic & parasympathetic divisions have opposite effects e.g. parasympathetic activity increases GIT peristalsis & secretions, sympathetic activity reduces it

Parasympathetic:
Eye (pupil); Constriction
Lungs; Bronchoconstriction
Heart; Heart rate & blood pressure decreased
Gastrointestinal Tract; Increased motility and secretions
Liver; Glycogen synthesis
Adrenal glands; No involvement

58
Q

Nerve impulses; action potential - 2 stages; Depolarisation and repolarisation

A
  1. Depolarisation; The negative membrane potential (-70mV) becomes positive and reaches +30mV
  2. Repolarisation: The membrane is then restored to -70mV
59
Q

Resting potential; polarise / charged

A

Cells exhibiting a membrane potential are said to be polarised or ‘charged’

60
Q

Resting potential; Extracellular / intracellular fluid

A

The extracellular fluid is rich in NA+ and Cl- ions and carries a positive charge.

The intracellular fluid is rich in K+ and large negatively charged proteins and phosphates which cannot leave the cell. Thus, carries a negative charge inside the cell

61
Q

Resting potential; sodium / potassium pump

A

As the Na+ and Cl- try to move back to equalise the charge, the separation of charges is maintained by the sodium-potassium pump which pumps 3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ it pumps back in (using ATP – up the concentration gradient)

62
Q

Neurotransmitters; Amino acids

A
  1. Amino acids e.g. glutamate, GABA (formed from amino acid Glutamine)
63
Q

Neurotransmitter; Monoamines

A
  1. Monoamines e.g. dopamine, serotonin, adrenaline, noradrenaline
64
Q

Neurotransmitters; Peptides

A
  1. Peptides (neuropeptides (proteins)) e.g. endorphins, Substance P
65
Q

Other Neurotransmitters

A
  1. Unique molecules e.g. acetylcholine, nitric oxide

Biomedicine 1 (39 decks)

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