Cytology, Basic Genetics and Histology Flashcards
Active Transport
Movement of substances from an area of low to hight concentration (up the concentration gradient). Inc; Pumps, Endocytosis, Exocytosis
Requires APT
Active Transport; Endocytosis
Engulfing of particles into the cell through cell membrane extensions
Active Transport; Exocytosis
Removal of waste from the cell. The material fuses with the cell membrane before being expelled
Active Transport; Pumps
Movement of molecules up the concentration gradient using a protein pump (used for H+, K+, Na+) e.g. sodium potassium pump
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
The energy currency of all body cells
Amino acids
Building blocks for protein. Consist of 4 nucleobases;
Adenine (A), Thymine (T) (always go together)
Cytosine (C), Guanine (G) (always go together)
Anatomy
Study of the structures that form the body (Dissection)
Antigen
Molecules that can generate an immune response
Atom and molecule
Chemical level
Blood glucose
Normal = 4-7 mmol/L
Body cavities
The body;’s organs are primarily located within 4 cavities;
Cranial, Thoracic, Abdominal, Pelvic
Cell
Smallest living unit in the body
Cell components
Parts of the cell = Cell wall (plants only NOT humans), Cell membrane, Cytosol, Organelles, Cytoplasm
Cell junctions
Contact / communication points between adjacent cell membranes of tightly packed cells. Inc; tight junctions (transmembrane proteins fuse cells together to reinforce junctions and seal off passageways (prevents leaking), and Gap junctions (small fluid filled tunnels between neighbouring cells (e.g. nerves)
Cell membrane
Flexible, semi permeable, fluid structure that separates the cells external and internal environment. It allows mobility and assists cell processes. Made up of phospholipid bilayer, transmembrane proteins and other fats e.g. cholesterol.
Cell memory
The ability of cells to remember experiences which influence the vital force in cells and body
Cell reproduction; Meiosis
Cell reproduction – the process through which gametes (sex cells) are formed. 2 divisions. Four non identical cells are produced. Haploid cells (23 chromosomes)
For production of new individuals
Cell reproduction; Mitosis
Somatic cells reproduce to create two cells identical to the original mother cell; used for growth and repair
Cell Theory
All living things are made up of cells and vital force, Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living things, cells come from pre-existing cells by division, contain hereditary information (DNA) which is passed on, all energy flow of life (metabolism and life force)occurs within cells
Characteristics of death
Loss of heartbeat, absence of breathing, Loss of brain function, No vital/Life force /QI
Characteristics of life
Metabolism, Responsiveness, Movement, Reproduction, Growth, Differentiation, Vital force / QI
Chromosomes
Thread like structures of nucleic acids & proteins found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic info in form of genes. Each cell in the body contains 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). The 23rd pair determines sex; males = XY, females = XX
Core temperature
36.5-37.5 ‘C
Cytology
Study of cells
Cytoplasm
All the cell content excluding the nucleus (inc. cytosol & organelles)
Organelles: Cytoskeleton
A network of protein filaments (microtubules and microfilaments) that extend through the cytosol.
Assist in; generate cell movement (enable WBC to migrate to the site of injury). In muscle cells they are the organelles that enable muscle contraction
Physical support and shape (they determine cell shape)
Cell division (they move chromosomes apart)
Cytosol
Basic watery fluid inside a cell
Differentiation
Development to specialised state
Disease
A disruption of body physiology can cause disease
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
A self-replicating material present in living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes, carrying genetic information
Endocrine glands
Enter interstitial fluid and then diffuse into blood. (These glands produce hormones)
Eukaryote cell
With nucleus and membrane bound organelles
Examples; animals, plants, algae, funghi, protozoans
Exocrine glands
Secrete their products into ducts (e.g. saliva, milk, sebum, sweat, enzymes)
Extracellular
Outside cell
Feedback system
Group of receptors and effectors communicating with their control centre
Feedback system; Negative
‘The output reverses the input’.
Feedback system; Positive
Strengthens change in one of the body’s controlled conditions (amplifier).
Gametes (sex cells)
AKA haploid cells. 23 chromosomes only
Genes
Sub-sections of DNA that act as instructions to make proteins. Thousands located along chromosomes. Hold genetic information
Gland
Single cell or groups of epithelial cells that produce secretions; two types – exocrine and endocrine glands
Goblet cells
Produce and secrete mucus which protects / lubricates the lining membrane and traps foreign particles (in respiratory tract)
Growth
Increase in size or number
Haploid cells (half)
AKA Gametes (sex cells). 23 chromosomes only
Hepatocytes
Liver cells
Histology
Study of tissues. A tissue is a group of specialised cells with a similar function. The four types of tissues are; Epithelial tissue, Connective tissue, muscular tissue, nervous tissue
Homeostatic control
Homeostasis is constantly being disturbed by external and internal factors and so requires control systems to bring it back into balance; Disruptors, Detectors, Control centre, Effectors
Disrupters; Change homeostatic parameter.
Detectors: Receptors that detect disruption (often nerves).
Effectors; Structures that receive output.
Control centre; Determines limits within which parameters should be maintained. Evaluates input and generates output.
Homeostasis. Inc systems
The condition of equilibrium / balance in the body’s internal environment maintained by the body’s own regulatory processes. Inc; Core temperature, water / electrolytes concentrations, Ph (acidity / alkalinity of body fluids), blood glucose levels, blood and tissue O2/CO2 levels, blood pressure, flow of life force
Hydrophilic
Water loving (outside of cell membrane)
Hydrophobic
Water hating (tails on inside of cell membrane)
Hypoxia
Low oxygen levels
Interstitial fluid
Fluid that surrounds cell (tissue within tissue)
Intracellular
Within cell
Ion
A molecule with an electric charge
Macrocytic
Large cells
Membranes: function and types
Flat sheets that cover/line areas of the body, they combine epithelial & connective tissues. 4 types = Cutaneous, mucous, serous, synovial
Membranes; Cutaneous membrane
Skin: contains epithelial tissue and dermis and connective tissue
Membranes; Mucous membrane
Line hollow organs that open to a surface of the body -provides a protective barrier (line digestive, respiratory & genito-urinary tracts. The epithelial layer contains Goblet cells that produce and secrete mucus.
Membranes; Serous membrane
Double layered membrane with fluid in between. Contain inner visceral layer (surrounds organs) and outer parietal layer (lines a cavity). Line body cavities that do not open to the exterior (pericardium, pleura, peritoneum)
Membranes; Synovial membranes
Line cavities of freely movable joints in the body
Metabolism
Sum of all the chemical processes in the body
Movement
Movement of the whole organism or of individual organs, cells and structures inside cells
mRNA
Messenger RNA
Mucus
A slimey fluid that
Protects the lining membrane from mechanical and chemical injury / drying (e.g. in the stomach)
Traps foreign particles in the respiratory tract (before they are removed by cilia)
Muscular tissue
Contracts to create movement
Mutation
A change in genetic information (DNA sequences). Mutations in gametes (sex cells) are passed onto offspring. Mutations in somatic cells cannot be inherited)
Nervous tissue
Transmits electrical signals round the body
Organelles
Specialised structures within a living cell. Inc; Nucleus (and nucleolus), Mitochondria, Ribosomes, Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, Lysosymes, Cytoskeleton
Organelles; Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
A network of membranes in the form of flattened sacs.
Extends from the nuclear envelope throughout the cytoplasm, to the cell membrane
Rough ER: continuous with nuclear membrane.
It’s outer surface is studded with ribosomes (rough appearance) and it synthesis and transports proteins
Smooth ER (lacks ribosomes, smooth appearance). It contains enzymes that synthesis lipids and steroid hormones e.g oestrogen. In the liver they detox alcohol and drugs.
In muscle it releases calcium for muscle contraction.
Organelles; Golgi Apparatus
Modifies, sorts, packages and transports proteins received from the rough ER. Consists of flattened membranous sacs that form membrane bound vesicles (transport)
Most cells have several Golgi apparatuses
Enzymes modify the proteins and they bus off in transport vesicles
Organelles; Lysosome
Vesicles that perform a key role in digestion. Enzymes break down molecules and digest and recycle worn out organelles. There engulf ands digest these and the components are returned to try cytosol for re-use. They also digest foreign cells.
Lysozymes also release enzymes externally, such as sleek to assist egg entry
Organelles; Mitochondria
Second largest organelle - bean shaped
Cell powerhouses that generate ATP (adenosine tri phosphate)
ATP is the energy currency of all body cells
Located near where oxygen enters cells or where ATP is used in the cell
Contain a double layered membrane with fluid in between
Inner membrane has Cristae (series of folds) which produce a large surface area for reactions
Cells can contain 100 - thousands depending on cell
Muscle cells (inc those in heart) contain the most mitochondria
They use ATP to generate muscle contraction
Mitochondria use oxygen and nutrients such as glucose to create ATP in aerobic respiration
(Glucose) + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water +ATP
Organelles; Nucleus
Spherical structure that contains the body’s genetic information, in the form of DNA.
All body cells have a nucleus (except RBC).
The nucleus controls all cell functions – the brain of the cell.
It contains a Nucleolus (which produces RNA)
It’s surrounded by a double layered membrane that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm
The membrane is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum
The nuclear membrane contains pores for substance movement in and out of the nucleus
Organelles; Ribosomes
Acts as sites for protein synthesis. High content of Ribonucleic acid (RNA).
They are either free (Mobile) in cytoplasm or bound to rough ER (stationary)
Free/Mobile ribosomes make proteins for inside the cell and stationary make proteins for outside the cell
They synthesise proteins for specific organelles, which they export from the cell, E.g. hormones
Organism (The organism)
All body parts together
Organs
Groups of tissues working together
Oxidative damage
Damage of a structure by a molecule containing oxygen (due to toxins, stress, smoking, diet)
Parietal layer
The outer layer of a serous membrane, lining a cavity
Passive Transport
The movement of substances from an area of high to low concentration (down the concentration gradient). Inc. Diffusion, Osmosis, Facilitated diffusion
Passive transport;
Facilitated Diffusion
Movement down concentration gradient aided by transmembrane protein–larger substances e.g. glucose/charged molecules
Passive transport; Diffusion
Movement of small molecules down the concentration gradient such as gases (e.g. O2)
Passive transport; Osmosis
Movement of water down the concentration gradient
Pathology
Study of abnormalities from normal function
Penia
Lack of cells
Phagocytosis
Ingest and destroy microbes
Phospholipid bilayer
Double layered (bilayer) structure that makes up the cell membrane and helps separate a cells external and internal environment. Consists of phosphate heads (hydrophilic -water loving, facing outwards) and lipid tails (hydrophobic – water hating, facing inwards).
Physiology
How the parts of the body work
Pinocytosis
Ingest and destroy microbes – liquid (cell drinking / to drink)
Polypeptide
Big / many peptides
Prokaryote cell
Without nucleus and no membrane bound organelles (internal cell structures)
Examples; bacteria, archaea
Protein synthesis
Cells use the DNA code as a template for the synthesis of a specific protein (phases = 1; transcriptions, 2; translation)
Protein synthesis; Transcription
1st phase in protein synthesis: A copy of one gene is made into mRNA, which travels out of the nucleus to the ribosome
Protein synthesis; Translation
2nd phase in protein synthesis: The ribosome reads the code and produces a chain of amino acids to form the required protein
Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
Highly reactive chemicals formed from oxygen (a subset of free radicals)
Eg hydrogen peroxide
Causes inc smoking, UV radiation, pollution, diet etc
Reproduction
Formation of new cells or production of a new individual
Responsiveness
Ability to respond to changes in the environment
RNA
Ribonucleic acid
Essential for protein synthesis
Synovial Fluid
A lubricating fluid found in many joints – movement / friction
Synthesis
Production
Systems
Related organs that have a common function. Human body systems inc. skeletal, muscular, respiratory, cardiovascular, digestive, endocrine, lymphatic, integumentary, urinary, reproductive, nervous, immune system
Tissue; Connective tissue: structure and function
Most abundant tissue, inc. bone, cartilage and blood. Formed of two basic elements; extracellular matrix and cells
Functions; structural framework (bone/ cartilage), transport of nutrient / waste (blood), Protection of vital organs (bone, cartilage adipose), support and interconnection (tendons, ligaments), insulation (adipose), energy store, production of blood and lymphatic cells (adipose, bone marrow), defence and repair (blood, lymph)
Tissue; connective tissue; Adipocytes
Store triglycerides (fat)
Tissue; Connective tissue; Cells
Widely spaced cells that synthesis the protein fibres, white blood cells and fat cells (3 types of cell – fibroblasts, adipocytes, WBC)
Tissue; connective tissue; collagen fibres
Found within the matrix of connective tissue, made from protein collagen - strong, bigger, found in bone, ligaments, tendons, occur in parallel bundles (strength)
Tissue; connective tissue; Elastic fibres
Found within the matrix of connective tissue, made from protein elastin – smaller diameter, strong but stretchy, found in skin, blood vessels walls, lung tissue
Tissue; Connective tissue; Extracellular matrix
Formed of ground substance (determines the functionality of the tissue – fluid, semi-fluid or calcified) and protein fibres (collagen and elastic)
Tissue; Connective tissue; Fibroblasts
Large and most numerous cells. Secrete protein fibres to make collagen and elastic fibres – active repair and healing
Tissue; connective tissue; White blood cells
Macrophages – engulf foreign cells (phagocytes)
Lymphocytes – produce antibodies
Mast cells – release inflammatory chemicals
Tissue; Epithelial tissue
Covers parts of the body, A covering / lining tissue, cells are closely packed together arranged in continuous sheets in a single or multiple layers. Provides a barrier/seal. Divided into covering epithelium- found in skin, eyes, digestive tract, urinary tract, lungs, heart, blood vessels, reproductive organs and glandular epithelial tissue
Tissue; Epithelial tissue; Glands
A single cell or group of epithelial cells that produce secretions. Two types – Endocrine and Exocrine glands
Tissues: structure and function
Groups of cells that work together to perform a function
The four types of tissues are; Epithelial tissue, Connective tissue, muscular tissue, nervous tissue
Transmembrane proteins
Transport substances in / out of cells, immunological identity (recognise own cells / passport), receptors (recognition sites for hormones etc)
Visceral layer
The inner layer of a serous membrane, surrounds organs
Vital force / life force, QI
The energy that creates life
Free radical
Molecule with an unpaired electron - causing them to be highly reactive.
Tries to steal the missing electron in neighbouring / other molecules, causing damage.
Causes inc smoking, UV radiation, pollution, diet etc
Oxidative stress
When the balance of anti oxidants and pro oxidants (free radicals, reactive oxidative species) is unbalanced and tipping in favour of pro oxidants.
Anti oxidants
Stabilise free radicals by donating the missing electron
