Reproductive Flashcards
mastitis
inflammation of mammary gland
often bacterial (not always)
mainly dairy cattle but all species can get it
mastitis - treatment
antimicrobials
antiinflammatories - NSAIDs, steroids
nursing
supportive therapies
mastitis - antimicrobials
intramammary or parenteral
some bacteria very responsive
e. coli - most common cause, often not responsive to antibiotics
need to be used for enough days
definitely use if have bacteremia
mastitis - anti-inflammatories
NSAIDs -
meloxicam, flunixin meglumine
help combat endotoxemia
always useful - pain stops them wanting to get up so will eat less and hang out in gross places
steroids -
decrease inflammation
not analgesic
immunosuppresive - not great if an infection
local preparations - potential may help distribute antimicrobials
mastitis - nursing
stripping - should do routinely, flushes out bacteria and toxins
fluids
electrolytes
getting up and turning over down cows
mastitis - supportive therapies
feeding
supplementation
mastitis - prevention
identify issues early - bulk milk
environmental hygiene
milk parlour hygiene
teat sealing
nutrition
bedding management
vaccines
neonatal sepsis - equine
infection + systemic inflammatory response
leading cause of mortality in foals <1 weeks old
usually failure of passive transfer
cormorbid with other neonatal diseases - increased liklihood of not eating properly, lying down in grim places leading to poor immune function and infection
neonatal sepsis - signs - equine
non specific
lethargy
depression
seizure
unwillingness to suckle
tachy or bradycardia
tachypnoea - metabolic acidosis
pethachiae on gums or ears
recumbancy
dehydration
cold extremities
pale mm
scleral congestion
localised signs of infection
neonatal sepsis - diagnosis - equine
signs and history - not sucking, premature foals, dystocia, materal illness, failure of passive transfer
bacteriology - blood or synovial fluid
hematology - leukopenia and neutropenia
biochem - hypoglycemia common, azotemia, liver enzymes, increased lactate, increased acute phase proteins
IgG
neonatal sepsis - treatment - equine
maintain homeostasis
control infection
antibiotics
fluids - resuscitation and maintenance - correct hypovolemia then reassess
respiratory support - intranasal oxygen (hypoperfusion of tissues)
NSAIDs - use with caution in neonates - treating systemic inflammation and coagulopathies
nutritional support - keep blood glucose up
nursing - often round the clock - biosec, catheter care, turning to stop pressure sores
neonatal encephalopathy - equine
new born foal
non-infectious
neuro signs
immediate post partum
either -
hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy - cerebral hypoxia, adverse peripartum events
neonatal maladjustment syndrome - persistant elevation of in utero hormones - normal adjustment not happened
neonatal encephalopathy - signs - equine
behavioural changes - lack of interest in mare, inappropriate nursing, weird vocalisation
altered mentation - depression, stupr, somnolence, difficult to rouse, coma
cranial nerve dysfunction - no suckle reflex, weak tongue tone, tongue protrusion, dysphagia
CNS dysfunction - tremors, proprioception deficits, central blindness, ireegular respiratory patterns, seizures
neonatal encephalopathy - ddx - equine
sepsis
electrolyte abnormalities
hypoglycemia
meningitis
EHV 1
birth defects - lavender foal, hydroencephalus, hydraencephaly
hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) - equine
mulitsystem organ dysfunction common along with neuro signs
risk factors -
placental disease
premature placental separation
maternal illness
dystocia
c section
birth trauma
supportive treatment
neonatal maladjustment syndrome (NMS) - equine
similar presentation with HIE but without the risk factors
failure in transition in uterine unconscious state to extrauterine conscious state
usually acheived by physcial compression during 2nd stage labour - triggers endocrine changes
rapid birth may be a risk factor
treat with foal squeeze (squeezey rope)
Neonatal Isoerythrolysis - equine
most common cause of jaundice in foals
anemia - RBCs destroyed by maternal antibodies to foal RBCs in colostrum
blood group incompatibility
mostly thoroughbreds
normal foal at birth then get ill from colostrum
good prognosis in mild/uncomplicated cases, less good if concurrent sepsis or renal disease or very sever signs
Neonatal Isoerythrolysis - signs - equine
at 2-5 days after birth
Vary with degree of anemia and amount of colostrum ingested
May develop metabolic acidosis due to anaerobic tissue metabolism
Lethargy
Weakness
Jaundice
Anorexia
Pyrexia
Multi organ failure – severe
Death – severe
CNS effects – seizure – severe
Dyspnoea – reduced o2 carrying ability – severe
Neonatal Isoerythrolysis - diagnosis - equine
tentative diagnosis any foal with lethargy, jaundice and anemia
presence of antibodies in colostrum or mare serum against foals RBCs - lysis of foal RBCS
jaundice foal agglutination test - not as sensitive but quick patient side test
Neonatal Isoerythrolysis - treatment - equine
monitor - PCV and signs
avoid stress/exertion
blood transfusion if PCV very low - risk of transfusion reaction, can overload liver with iron
antibiotics - prevent sepsis
hyperimmune plasma if failure of passive transfer
not much point taking them off the mare - not getting colostrum after a couple of days anyway
Neonatal Isoerythrolysis - prevention - equine
blood typing before breeding - some groups should be bred with caution
jaundiced foal agglutination test before foal nurses if mare has history of this before
muzzle foals of mare with history of this and use alternative colostrum
best practice at birth
clean and dry environment
move baby away from trampling
place in front of mum
encourage to lie sternal
encourage dam to clean
don’t swing baby
if struggling to breath percuss chest and massage fluid out of nose and mouth
dystocia
most commonly caused by foetal oversize
oedema
bruising
fractures
hypoxic foetus (due to reduced oxygen from compression of umbilical cord or premature placental separation)
metabolic acidosis - lactic acid production and build up
respiratory acidosis - poor lung function
reduced suck reflex - due to acidosis
failure of passive transfer - reduced colostrum intake from reduced sucking
dystocia - diagnosis of acidosis/hypoxia
time to sternal recumbancy over 5 mins
reduction or absence of suck reflex
colostrum contents
high protein, fat and vitamins - energy
immunoglobulins
growth factors
leukocytes
factors affecting colostrum quality
timing when collected from mum - decreased IgG over time
breed
parity
pre partum nutrition
length of dry period
abortion/induction
mastitis
factors affecting colostrum intake
inadequate supply - quantity or quality
udder conformation
poor mothering
maternal disease
poor neonatal vigour - reduced sucking
factors affecting colostrum absorption
time from birth to sucking
method of administration
acidosis - reduces absorption ability
induction of parturition
failure of passive transfer
major risk for all neonatal disease
especially if fail to suckle within 6 hours
holteins particularly bad for it
investigating failure of passive transfer
serum immunoglobulin -
refractometer - total prteins
zinc sulphate turbidity
sodium sulphate turbidity
radial immunodiffusion
nasal stick test - IgG
lateral flow - IgG
sample from 24 hours to 7 days
consider effect of dehydration on total proteins
failure of passive transfer - prevention
good pre partum nutrition
avoid dystocia
tube feed colostrum ASAP
supervision
keep good quality frozen colostrum
colostrum substitutes
equine - normal neonatal milestones
righting reflex in seconds
suck reflex - 5-10 mins
trying to stand - 30 mins
standing - 1 hour
nursing - 2 hours
meconium passed - in 24 hours
urine - dilute, large volumes in 6 hours for colts and 10 hours for fillies
2-3L colostrum
nurse 5-7 times per hour
prematurity/dysmaturity - characteristics
low birth weight
short, sily hair
floppy ears
domed head
weakness
prolonged time to stand
lax flexor tendons
incomplete ossifciation or tarsal and carpal bones
prematurity/dysmaturity - risk factors
health of dam in gestation
foaling environment
ease of delivery
gestational age at birth
placental abnormalities
placental transfer or maternal immunoglobulin
consequences of failure of passive transfer - foals
septicemia
increased infectious disease in first 4 months
causes of retained foetal membranes - equine
failure of detachment of microvillous attachments
usuallt tips of non gravid uterine horn
dystocia
premature delivery
abortion
c section
uterine intertia
delayed uterine involution
placentitis
retained foetal membranes - predisposing factors - equine
older mare
induced parturition
c section
delayed uterine involution
dystocia
obstetric manipulation
abortion
still birth
twinning
retention at a previous birth
retained foetal membranes - sequelae - equine
range from no effects - death (so can be real emergency)
metritis
laminitis
myocarditis
retained foetal membranes - history - equine
fetal membranes still visible after 3-6 hours
recent foaling or abortion
failure to complete stage 3 within 3 hours of birth
dystocia
abnormalities at foaling
sick mare
placental membranes not been seen or incomplete placenta only
retained foetal membranes - signs - equine
retained membranes hanging out
pyrexia
dullness
depression
reduced appetite
reduced milk production
endotoxemia
abdominal pain - 12-48 hours post partum
colic
vaginal discharge
retained foetal membranes - treatment - equine
aim to -
maintain uterine contractility
control inflammation
control bacterial proliferation
tie up placenta hanging out so don’t stand on it - weight of placenta can help it fall out
oxytocin (can cause colic but very effective)
uterine lavage - can cause contractions/separation, wash bacteria out and delay onset of sepsis
antibiotics - after removal
NSAIDs - bute or flunixin - for the colic after oxytocin
manual removal - could cause hemorrhage, pulmonary embolism, uterine inveesion, prlapse or infection - ensure microvilli not attached still and all membranes out
retained foetal membranes - indications for referral - equine
signs of sepsis
history or signs of laminitis
lack of experience in handling these cases
retained foetal membranes - risk factors - cattle
common in diary cows
dystocia
uterine torsion
abortion
stillbirth
c-section
twins
immunosuppression
negative energy balance
selenium/vitamin E deficiency
hypocalcemia
retained foetal membranes - consequences - cattle
delayed uterine involution
longer time to first service
decreased fertility
increased risk endometritis, metritis, ketosis, mastitis
decreased milk production
less dramatic than in horsest
retained foetal membranes - treatment - cattle
manual removal - could lead to increased metritis and can cause trauma to uterus and endometrium - more chance of bacteria build up and septicemia
antibiotic pessary in uterus - expensive and milk withdrawal
systemic antibiotics - only if systemically ill
oxytocin/prostaglandin PFG2a
retained foetal membranes - prevention - cattle
keep cos comfortable
reduce stress around parturition
adequate and balanced nutrition
consider history - more likely to retain if have done before
retained foetal membranes - other farm species
sheep - rare
goats - more than sheep but not common
pigs - rare but increasing with breeding for more piglets, prolific sows more prone
longer parturition a risk factor
failure to cycle - causes - equine
time of year
lactational anoestrus
failure to cycle post foaling
persistant CL
ovulation failure
ovarian neoplasia
ovarian hematoma
genetic abnormalities
time of year - cycle - equine
long day breeders - melatonin in response to darkness inhibitis hypothalamus
april-october - ovulatory
can control artifically - artifical light or blue LED mask on one eye
can also control with hormones
exposure to stallion in neighbouring paddock to advance season
improved BCS also helps to cycle earlier
foal heat
oestrus at 7-12 days post partum
then switch to regular 21 day cycle
may have variable periods of anoestus after foaling then take a while to cycle normally
lactational anoestrous
may only start cycling again when foal weaned
persistant CL - equine
CL hangs around longer than notmal and delays onset of oestrous
causes -
ovulation late in dioestrous
chronic endometritis - lose ability to produce prostaglandin to lyse CL, older mares
lutenised anovulatory follicle
try and lyse by giving prostaglandin
high progesterone indicates presence of luteal tissue
ovulation failure - equine
usually anovulatory follicle
insufficient hormone production
higher incidence in older mare
ovarian neoplasia - equine
granulosa cell tumour - hormonally active, stallion like behaviour
usually unilateral, other ovary not working while tumour is there and gets small
cystadenoma, teratome, cystadenoma - slow growing and hormonally inactive - other ovary functions normally
ovarian hematoma - equine
excessive post ovulation hemorrhage
may need removed if big enough to damage ovary architecture
genetic abnormalities - equine
gonadal dysgenesis - sterile - missing sex chromosome, normal external but small ovaries and underdeveloped uterus
mosaics/chimeras - some normal and some abnormal cells - sub or infertile
no treatment, but uncommon
failure to conceive - causes - equine
anatomically normal and cycling but not getting in foal
endometritis
uterine abnormalities
oviduct abnormalities
endometritis - equine
inflammation of inner lining of uterus
most common cause of subfertility
breeding induced endometritis - normal - inflammatory response to insemination, should clear in 24-48 hours once debris flushed out by natural processes
venereal pathogens - natural mating or contaminated semen
usually older mares susceptible
usually no external signs
may see discharge
ultraousn - oedema, fluid in lumen - graded by amount of fluid and character
sampling - swab, low volume flush, or biopsy
treatment -
oxytocin or pgf2a - stimulate contraction to remove debris
uterine lavage
exercise - helps push fluid out
antibiotics/antifungals - c&s
address predisposing factors - conformation, contamination at breeding
uterine abnormalities - equine
uterine cysts -
older mares,
lymphatic origin
visible on US
can interfere with mobility of conceptus, prevent implantation and be misinterpreted as pregnancy
adhesions -
usually from trauma or previous dystocia
areas of scarring
inhibit implantation
foreign bodies -
recurrent non responsive endometritis
if remove should return to normal
neoplasia -
leiomyoma - only an issue if obstrucitve or hemorhagic
pregnancy failure - equine
twinning
early embryonic loss
abortion
placentitis
twinning - equine
rate of twin conception high in thoroughbreds
placenta can’t provide enough nutrients
usually abort around 7-9 months
early identification and pinching before fixation
early embryonic loss - equine
loss of pregnancy before 70 days
intrinsic factors -
endometrial disease
maternal age - oocyte quality decreases
progesterone deficiency - not seen often in horses
extrinsic factors -
systemic disease - any that can endotoxemia, lead to increased systemic prostaglandin and luteolysis
nutrition - poor BCS
toxins
iatrogenic - handling in embryo transfer
abortion - equine
between 70-300 days
may result from systemic disease
usually don’t find out why
infectious causes -
ascending placentitis
EHV1
equine vial arteritis
MRLS (caterpillar, we don’t have it here)
lepto
nocardiform placentitis
non-infectious causes -
twinning
umbilical cord torsion
congenital abnormalities
maternal disease
mare not usually affected systemically
placentitis - equine
ascending - infection starting at caudal pole then spreading cranially
may have vulval diacharge
may have premature udder development
can lead to abortion if extensive
ultrasound - thickness of uterus and placenta at caudal pole
antibiotics
NSAIDs
progesterone supplement
pentoxyfyline - improve quality of RBCs
prepare for compromised foal
causes of abortion - equine
viral
bacterial
fungal
twinning
placental disease
foetal disease
maternal disease
premature placental separation
no diagnosis in 50% cases
management of abortion - equine
try and establish cause
rule out infectious causes
ensure not having outbreaks
examine foetus and membranes
isolation until infectious ruled out
flushing
repairing tears
types of placentitis - equine
ascending - most common - microorganisms access cervical portion of placenta via cervix
diffuse/multifocal - hematogenous spread, widespread infection and inflammation - lepto, salmonella, candida
focal mucoid - south america - nocardiform
diagnosis - placentitis - equine
usually older multiparous mares
no clinical signs until advanced - discharge, premature udder development and lactation
US - assess thickness at caudal pole of placenta
treatment - placentitis - equine
antibiotics
NSAIDs
pentoxyfyline - improves deforability in RBCs to improve perfusion to placenta
alternogest - mitigates prostaglandin induced abortion
aspirin
prevention - placentitis - equine
predisposed by poor comformation
regular monitoring in future pregnancies
prepare for compromised foal
uterine torsion - equine
cause unknown
uncommon
last 4 months
mild colic - recurrent if severe torion
risk of uterine rupture
diagnosis - rectal palpation
correct by rolling mare under GA or surgery
severe troision –> occlusion of uterine blood flow –> ischemia to uterus and foetus –> abortion
ventral abdominal swelling - equine
variable swelling
leaves a dent if you poke the belly
mostly just normal to have oedeam towards term
abdominal wall rupture
hydrops
abdominal wall rupture - equine
older mares
swelling and pain
draft horses
associated with hydrops and twinning
can be from trauma - kicking
can be seen in conjunction with pre-pubic tendon tear - tear at insertion with pelvis
ventral abdomen drops
lordosis
reluctance to move
blood in milk
treatment -
abdominal support
restricted exercise
analgesia
prognosis dependant on size of tear, should retire from breeding after
hydrops - equine
excess fluids build up in one of the placental compartments
can lead to wall rupture
may have spontaneous abortion, if not then usually need to induce parturition
hydroallantois - chorioallantois not regulating fluid
hydramnion - usually associated with foetal abnormality - uncommon
older mares
rapid onset abdominal distension
last trimester
low grade colic
lethargy
anorexia
dyspnoea - uterus pushing cranially
diagnosis - rectal palpation, ultrasound
vaginal varicose veins - equine
common cause of vulval discharge
lots of blood so looks alarming but mostly normal
nothing wrong with foetus or uterus
usually older mares
grape like structures on roof of vagina
can cauterise with formalin, laser or heat (or just leave them)
reproductive colic - equine
differentiate peri-partum conditions causing colic from non-reproductive causes
late pregnancy - more prone to colon displacement and torsion
could be due to foetal activity
maceration
cervix open
allows bacteria entry
mummification
foetal death with persistent CL
closed cervix
no contractions
causes of fertilisation failure - farm
bad AI timing
delayed ovulation
poor uterine environment
early embryonic death - farm
day 1-19
genetic defects
poor quality ova
endometritis
lack of interferon tau
heat stress
infection
late embryonic death - farm
day 19-40
same risk factors as early embryonic death
also impact of management factors
abortion - farm
day 40-270
infectious and non infectious causes
infectious abortion causes - sheep
chlamydia
toxoplasmosis
salmonella
campylobacter
brucella abortus
border disease
fungal
non-infectious abortion causes - sheep and cattle
genetic defects
heat stress
management stress
nutrition
iatrogenic
infectious abortion causes - cattle
brucella abortus - notifiable
leptospirosis
trueperella pyogenes
listeria monocytogenes
campylobacter spp
neospora caninum
salmonella
BVDV
fungal
brucella abortus
notifiable
zoonotic
long survival outside body
ingestion or venereal spread
hematogenous spread to uterus –> placentitis and endometritis
stays latent but usually only abort once
abortion storm in naive herds
late pregnancy abortion
lactating dairy cows routinely screened for antibodies
management of metritis rather than treatment of the brucella
leptospirosis
spread through infected urine, abortion products or venereal spread
carried and excreted by sheep - advise against co-grazing with cattle
rapid multiplaication in udder and uterus –> bacteremia
sudden milk drop
late abortion
pyrexia
microscopic agglutination test (MAT), ELISA, flourescent antibody test
antibiotics to reduce shedding
vaccine available
listeria monocytogenes
sporadic winter abortions
contaminated silage
transiet fever and illness
abortion at or after times of illness
usually late abortion
abortion unrelated to CNS signs
isolate organism from liver, abosmasum, foetus, placenta or vaginal discharge
prevention - good silage hygiene and storage
neospora caninum
carried by dogs
most commonly diagnosied abortion cause in cows UK
chronic infection
repeat abortions
can have live congenitally infected calves - pass through herd
abortion at 5-6 months
abortion storms in naive animals
mummified foetus
prevention - restrict dog access to feed and calving/abortion products
chlamydia abortus
zoonotic
common in sheep - enzootic abortion
spread by ingestion of abortion products of infected ewes
usually not ill at time of abortion
latent infection, abortion following year
after this usually immune
vaccine available
toxoplasma gondii
carried by cats
outcome dependent on stage of gestation when infected
non pregnant - immune
early pregnancy - early embryonic death
late pregnancy - foetal death, mummification or weak lambs
strawberry cotyledons
vaccine available but no treatment
campylobacter spp
sporadic abortion storms - usually for one season then immune
brought in by infected sheep or contaminated feed
abortion 1 month before lambing
aborted lambs are fresh
red inflamed placenta
no vaccine available
induction of abortion - medical - farm
PGF2A - day 7-150
PGF and steroid (dexamethasone) - days 150-270
PGF or steroid - day 275+
metritis - farm
usually e. coli of actinobacillus pyogenes
clinical metritis - abnormally large uterus, not necessarily systemically ill, purulent discharge
pureperal metritis - watery brown discharge, 21 days post calving, systemic illness
grading -
0-3 - endometritis - normal discharge to 100% pus
4-5 - metritis - brown, smelly discharge to systemically unwell
toxic metritis
usually don’t treat grade 1-2
uterine prolpase
abdominal straining in 3rd stage parturition
especially if membranes still attached
risk factors -
decreased uterine tone - hypocalcemia, dystocia
manual extraction of calf and membranes
long stage 2 labour
excessive straining
replace as quickly as possible
can lead to uterine artery rupture
treatment - epidural to replace uterus, remove placenta, sugar solution may help to shrink uterus (draws out water)
bull breeding soundness exam
scrotal circumference - related to fertility and fertility of daughters
palpation - even, firm
prepuce and penis - eg warts, lesions
accessory sex glands - palpable per rectum - size, swelling, shape
volume and density of semen
gross and progressive motility
morphology - bent tails, detached heads, proximal droplets, distal droplets
libido and ability to serve - able to mount, penis extrudes
eyes, jaw, heart, BCS, lungs, lameness
handle samples very carefully - temerpature changes can cause shock
