Reproduction and Urino-genital Flashcards
0
Q
What are the 3 characteristics of membrane transport?
A
Saturation
Specificity
Competition
1
Q
What hormone is produced by Leydig cells in the testes?
A
Testosterone
2
Q
Can renal transport reach saturation for all substances?
A
Yes except Na
3
Q
In which animal is the cortex NOT outside the medulla in the ovaries?
A
Horse (ovulatory fossa, opposite way round)
4
Q
What is the follicular epithelium called in the secondary follicles?
A
Membrane granulosa
5
Q
What is the function of the oviducts?
A
Transport the ovum from the ovary to the site of fertilisation
Transports spermatozoa from the site of deposition to the site of fertilisation
Provides an appropriate environment for fertilisation
Transports the fertilised ovum to the uterine horns were implantation and further development may occur
6
Q
What is contained in the Antrum of follicles?
A
Follicular fluid
7
Q
What are the main functions of the urinary system?
A
a. Excretion of metabolic waste products and salts
b. Elimination of toxic substances
c. Regulation of fluid, salt, and acid-base balance
d. Modulation of blood pressure
8
Q
Where are Leydig cells found in the testes?
A
Interstitial connective tissue
9
Q
What do the efferent ductules connect?
A
Rete testis with epididymis
10
Q
In the vas derefens, what epithelium is the lumen lined with?
A
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
11
Q
In the vas deferens, what are the 3 smooth muscle layers?
A
Thin inner longitudinal
Thick middle circular
Thick outer longitudinal
12
Q
In which animals are seminal vesicles (located above prostate) absent?
A
Carnivores
13
Q
What type of glands are present in the prostate and seminal vesicles?
A
Tubuloalveolar glands
14
Q
What do the tubuloalveolar glands of the prostate empty into?
A
Urethra
15
Q
Secretions from the prostate tubuloalveolar glands are rich in what?
A
Citric acid, acid phosphatase, and proteolytic enzymes
16
Q
What are the cylinders of erectile tissue in the penis?
A
Single corpus spongiosum
Paired corpora cavernosum
17
Q
Where is sperm produced?
A
Seminiferous tubules
18
Q
The ovary is divisible into which 2 things?
A
Cortex and medulla
19
Q
Of the cortex and medulla, which contains the developing oocytes?
A
Cortex (parenchyma)
20
Q
What produces follicular fluid?
A
Follicular epithelium
21
Q
Which 2 hormones produced by thecal and granulosa cells in the corpus luteum maintain pregnancy?
A
Oestrogen and progesterone
22
Q
What is atresia?
A
Terminated development of a follicle
23
Q
What physiological changes occur to the oviduct as the egg gets closer to the uterus?
A
Muscular layer gets thicker
Lumen diameter decreases
24
Give 2 characteristics of the oestrus uterus
Thick endometrium
| Highly developed glands
25
What are the 4 functions of the oviducts?
1. Transport ovum form ovary to site of fertilisation
2. Help transport sperm to site of fertilisation
3. Provide an appropriate environment for fertilisation
4. Transport the fertilised ovum to the uterine horns for implantation
26
What are the functions of the mucous plug of the cervix?
Seals off uterus during pregnancy, maintains a stable and sterile internal environment for embryonic development
27
What is the serosa layer made of?
Loose connective tissue
28
What are the main cells of the interstitial connective tissue in the testes?
Leydig cells (produce testosterone)
29
What are the primary cells of the seminiferous epithelium and what do they do?
Sertoli cells, act as support cells for sperm
30
What is milk production controlled by?
Prolactin
31
What is milk ejection controlled by?
Oxytocin
32
What epithelium does the vagina have?
Stratified squamous
33
What environment is present in the vagina?
Acidic
34
What kind of gland is the mammary gland?
Modified sweat gland
35
Which hormones are required for development of the mammary glands between puberty and pregnancy?
Oestrogen-ducts begin to branch and increase in diameter
Progesterone-terminal portions of branch begin to form alveoli
Prolactin and GH-complete and rapid development of ducts
36
How many ducts per teat in:
Ruminants
Horse/pig
Cat/dog
Ruminants=1
Horse/pig=2-3
Cat/dog=5-6
37
Why do secretory cells of the mammary gland have increased mitochondria, smooth ER and rER?
Mitochondria-energy
Smooth ER-phospholipid and triglyceride synthesis
rER-protein synthesis
38
What is the name of the protein in milk?
Casein
39
Out of a cow and a bitch, which ones milk has the highest fat and energy content?
Bitch
40
Which ions are present in milk?
Na+, K+, Cl-
| Ca2+ (free calcium, bound to casein, 30mM/L)
41
How long is milk withheld for after parturition?
4 days
42
In colostrum, what are the immunoglobulins present produced by?
Plasma cells in the gland
43
Which hormones increase during late pregnancy?
| Which decreases?
Cortisol, prolactin, oestrogen and placental lactogen (produced by placenta)
Progesterone decreases
44
How do decreased levels of progesterone stimulate milk secretion?
Progesterone inhibits synthesis of prolactin receptors, so low progesterone enables synthesis of prolactin receptors.
Alpha-lactalbumin synthesis is stimulated.
Alpha-lactalbumin up-regulates enzymes involves in lactose synthesis.
Milk secretion is stimulated
45
How is hormonal control of galactopoesis (maintenance of milk secretion) achieved?
Removal of milk by suckling/milking-causes release of oxytocin and prolactin from pituitary. Prolactin maintains alveolar cell metabolism and secretion of alpha-lactalbumin (lactose synthesis)
Ruminants-GH can uphold secretion via IGF-1
Alveolar cells secrete a protein-FIL (feedback inhibitor of lactation). FIL builds up and inhibits further secretion unless removed by milking
46
How is milk ejected from the mammary gland?
Contraction of myoepithelial cells pushes milk into larger ducts and cisterns
47
What is GnRH? What does it do?
Gonadotrophin releasing hormone
Released by hypothalamus
Drives the release of LH and FSH
48
What is the definition of puberty?
The acquisition of reproductive competence
49
What factors affect the onset of puberty?
Size and fatness (female)
Season of birth and photoperiod (may reflect energy supply)
Social cues (larger groups-pig- and presence of male)
50
What are the gender-specific definitions of puberty for males and females?
Males: age when ejaculate contains sufficient spermatozoa to fertilise
Females: age at which female can support a pregnancy without deleterious effects
51
What is oogenesis?
Formation of female gamete
52
When does the development of primordial to primary follicles occur?
Puberty
53
In the ovarian cycle, what controls the release of:
Oestrogen
Progesterone
Oestrogen=endocrine follicles
| Progesterone=corpus luteum
54
What does FSH do?
Stimulates the growth and recruitment of immature ovarian follicles
55
What does LH do?
Maintains function in the corpus luteum
Produces precursors for oestrogen production
Stimulates ovulation of follicle, maturation and luteinisation
56
A surge of which hormone brings about ovulation?
LH
57
Which phase folllows ovulation?
| Which hormone is dominant here?
Luteal phase
| Progesterone
58
What is proestrus?
Follicular (oestrogen-dominant) phase of ovarian cycle
| Female NOT sexually receptive
59
What is oestrus?
Female is sexually receptive, oestrogen is dominant
60
What is dioestrus/metoestrus?
Corpus luteum/progesterone-dominant phase of ovarian cycle
61
What is anoestrus?
Reproductive inactivity-no cyclic ovarian activity
62
Which animals are polyestrus? (many oestrus cycles per year)
Cow, pig, cat, rodent
63
Which animals are seasonal polyestrus?
Horse (spring breeding)
| Sheep (autumn breeding)
64
What are reflex ovulators?
Animals in which the brain controls reproduction
In the absence of coitus there is only a follicular phase
The GnRH pulse generator is not sensitive enough to oestrogen to induce an LH surge
Additional inputs during copulation eg stretch inputs from vagina
65
What hormone do Sertoli cells produce?
Inhibin
| Convert testosterone to oestrogen
66
Which hormone stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone?
LH
67
What is the sperm-testis barrier?
Physical barrier between blood vessels and seminiferous tubules
Formed by tight junctions between Sertoli cells which divide tubules into basal (in contact with blood vessels) and adluminal compartments
68
Why is it important to know the spermatogenic cycle?
Breeding males: if male is ill, we need to know how long we need to wait before his spermatozoa are normal
69
Where is oestrogen produced?
Granulosa cells of follicles
70
Which hormone inhibits GnRH?
Progesterone
71
What is luteolysis?
| Which hormone causes it?
Loss of progesterone secretion by the corpus luteum followed by loss of luteal tissue mass
Prostaglandin
72
How is prostaglandin released at luteolysis (end of luteal phase)?
In which species is prostaglandin not released?
Oxytocin (from CL and posterior pituitary) binds to its receptors on endometrial cells of the uterus
Cats and dogs (prostaglandin has no known role)
73
Which hormone inhibits LH?
Progesterone
74
Where does fertilisation occur?
Ampulla of oviduct
75
What are the definitions of emission and ejaculation?
Emission=movement of seminal fluids from accessory sex glands into pelvic urethra, which then mix with spermatozoa
Ejaculation=expulsion of spermatozoa and seminal plasma from male reproductive tract (under sympathetic control)
76
What is sperm capacitation?
Process which makes sperm fertile.
The surface molecules of sperm become coated with seminal plasma proteins that mask membrane molecules.
In the female tract, the seminal plasma coating and some surface molecules are removed, revealing molecules that can bind to zona pellucida of oocyte.
77
What is the zona block?
Process by which zona pellucida undergoes biochemical changes so that further sperm cannot penetrate
78
What is the fertile period?
Time during which mating could result in conception
79
What is the acrosomal reaction?
(Sperm binds to zona pellucida)
Swelling of acrosome membrane. Fuses with plasma membrane. Forms vesicles. Releases pockets of enzymes which enable sperm to pierce egg
80
Which hormone maintains pregnancy?
Progesterone
81
How does a fertilised egg stop luteolysis occuring and stopping the pregnancy?
Embryo releases interferon, which blocks oxytocin receptors, therefore uterus doesn't produce prostaglandin (which causes luteolysis) and progesterone levels don't decrease.
Progesterone maintains pregnancy.
82
What does the embryo release to let the mother know she's pregnant?
Interferon
83
What are the 3 endocrine functions of the placenta?
Produces hormones to:
Maintain pregnancy
Stimulate maternal mammary gland
Promote foetal growth
84
What defines a cotyledonary placenta?
| In which species is this present?
Attachment is via foetal cotyledons and maternal caruncles
| Ruminants and sheep
85
What defines a diffuse placenta?
| In which species is this present?
Attachment occurs throughout placenta
| Pigs and horses
86
What defines a zonary placenta?
| In which species is this present?
Placenta forms a band around the foetus
| Dog and cat
87
Which species are epitheliochorial? (6 layers between egg and maternal blood)
Which are endotheliochorial? (5 layers between egg and maternal blood)
Epitheliochorial=pig, horse, sheep, ruminant
| Endotheliochorial=dog, cat
88
What determines whether a foetus will be male or female?
SRY protein on Y chromosome
| Degenerates paramesonephric ducts, which would otherwise become vagina, ovaries, cervix and uterus
89
What is freemartinism in cattle?
Twins-male and female. Share placental blood supply.
Testes develop before ovaries
AMH and testosterone from the male are passed over to female, preventing her reproductive tract from developing properly
Female is sterile (male is fine)
90
When does the placenta take over progesterone secretion in the cow, bitch, cat, ewe, sow, horse
```
Cow=6-8 months
Bitch and cat=never-all comes from CL
Ewe=50 days
Sow=never-all comes from CL
Horse=70 days
```
91
What is parturition initiated by?
Foetus (foetal hypothalamus)
Release of foetal ACTH
Increase in foetal cortisol
92
How does relaxin contribute to initiation of parturition?
Stimulated by prostaglandin, produced by CL/placenta
| Causes softening of soft tissue and cervix, and increased elasticity of pelvic ligaments
93
How does oestradiol contribute to initiation of parturition?
Increases secretion of mucous (washing out cervical plug, lubricating vaginal and cervical canal)
Increases myometrial contractions
94
What are the 3 stages of parturition?
1=Initiation of myometrial contractions and cervical dilation
2=Expulsion of foetus
3=Expulsion of foetal membranes
95
Where does urine collect before drainage to bladder?
Renal pelvis
96
Which vessels provide blood supply to the kidneys?
Left/right renal artery and vein
97
Where are the kidneys situated in the abdomen?
Right=at level with L1-L3 (higher than left kidney)
| Left=at level with L2-L4 (cranial pole more caudal than right kidney)
98
What is the trigone of the bladder?
Area where ureters enter and urethra exits
99
What are the 2 ligaments of the bladder?
```
Median ligament (to ventral abdominal wall)
Lateral ligaments (to pelvic wall)
```
100
Where does the bladder lie in the male and female?
Male=ventral to descending colon
| Female=ventral to uterus/cervix
101
Why must the ovarian ligament be ligated during a spay?
Contains the ovarian artery and vein
102
What are the 4 peritoneal attachments of the ovary?
Mesovarium (ovarian ligament)
Mesosalpinx
Suspensory ligament
Proper ligament of ovary
103
How is the uterus attached to the lateral body wall?
By the mesometrium (broad ligament)
| Round ligament of uterus runs in broad ligament from ovary through inguinal canal
104
Which vessels provide the blood supply for the vagina, uterus, and ovaries?
Ovarian artery and vein, anastomose with uterine artery and vein
Vaginal artery and vein, cranial branch becomes uterine artery and vein that runs in broad ligament
105
Where are the ovaries located in the abdomen?
Dorsally at caudal pole of kidneys
Level of 13th rib dorsally
Level of umbilicus ventrally (hence this being cranial landmark for ventral midline spay)
106
What are the cranial and caudal landmarks for a bitch spay?
Cranial=level of umbilicus
| Caudal=2/3rd distance from umbilicus to pelvic rim
107
Where is the uterine body/cervix located in the abdomen?
Midline, ventral to descending colon/rectum, dorsal to bladder
108
Where are the uterine horns located in the abdomen?
From lateral ovaries to midline uterine body, between intestinal mass and abdominal wall
109
How many pairs of mammae are there in a bitch? (teats)
5:
2 thoracic
2 abdominal
1 inguinal
110
Which vessels supply blood to the mammary glands?
Cranial via cranial superficial epigastric
| Caudal via caudal superficial epigastric
111
Which vessels provide lymph drainage to the mammary glands?
Cranial 3 pairs via axillary
| Caudal 2 pairs via inguinal
112
What is the perineum?
Area beneath tail around anus
113
What is the inguinal canal?
Potential space between the layers of the abdominal wall muscles, that communicates with an external pouch
114
Where do the testes start development?
| Why do they descend?
Abdomen at caudal poles of kidneys
| Must descend through inguinal canal to scrotum as sperm development is hindered at body temp
115
Which vessels supply blood to the scrotum?
Branch of external pudendal artery and vein
116
What are the layers of the testes? (5)
```
Skin
Tunica dartos
Spermatic fascia (external spermatic, cremasteric and internal spermatic fascia)
Parietal peritoneum (vaginal tunic)
Visceral peritoneum
```
117
Why is the testicular vein arranged in a mesh encasing the testicular artery?
Allows cooling of arterial blood via heat exchange with venous blood from testis
118
How is the spermatic sac attached to the scrotum?
Via scrotal ligament
| This is broken in a closed castrate to free the testis
119
What does the spermatic sac consist of?
Vaginal tunic with closely adherent internal spermatic fascia and cremasteric fascia
120
Which layers are incised during an open castration?
Skin
Tunica dartos
Spermatic fascia (external, cremasteric, internal)
Vaginal tunic
121
Which layers are incised during a closed castration?
Inguinal skin
Tunica dartos
External spermatic fascia
122
Which erectile tissue of the penis encloses the urethra?
Corpus spongiosum
123
What are the 2 types of corpus cavernosum?
Musculocavernous: smooth muscle with large cavernous spaces (horse)
Fibro-elastic: fibrous and elastic tissue arranged in a sigmoid flexure with small cavernous spaces
124
Which vessel supplies arterial blood to the penis and which vessel drains it?
Branch of internal pudendal artery
| Drained by internal pudendal vein (and external pudendal vein in horse)
125
What are the 3 muscles of the penis? What do they do?
Retractor penis muscle-retracts penis back into sheath
Ischiocavernosus muscle-prevents venous drainage of blood during erection, rhythmic contractions increase pressure in corpus cavernosum during erection
Bulbospongiosus muscle- same as ischiocavernosus
126
What is contained within the ventral groove of the os penis?
Urethra
127
What makes up the double structure of the glans penis?
Bulbus glandis covers proximal half of os penis
| Pars longa glandis covers distal half of os penis
128
What are the 4 main functions of the urinary system?
Excretion of metabolic waste products and salt
Elimination of toxic substances
Regulation of fluid, salt, and acid-base balance
Modulation of blood pressure
129
What is the renal cortex composed of?
Cortical labyrinth and medullary rays
130
What is contained in the sparse cortical and medullary interstitial connective tissue that surrounds the blood vessels and renal tubules?
Reticular fibres and fibrocytes
131
What comprises a renal lobe?
Renal medullary pyramid and its associated cortical tissue
132
Which species have multi-lobar kidneys?
Pig (intermediate-smooth surface and internal multilobar structure) and cow
133
What is the functional unit of the kidney?
Uriniferous tubule
134
Where would you find fenestrated capillaries?
Glomerulus
135
What makes up a renal corpuscle?
| Where are they found?
Bowman's capsule plus glomerulus
| Cortex
136
What name is given to the cells and matrix that occupy the spaces between the capillary loops in the glomerulus?
Mesangium
137
In the nephron, which is the only tubule with a brush border?
Proximal convoluted tubule
138
Where is the majority of water and glucose in the filtrate reabsorbed in the nephrons?
Proximal convoluted tubule
139
What do juxtaglomerular cells secrete and in response to what?
Renin, in response to decreased blood pressure or a change in the Na+ and Cl- conc. in the distal tubule
Renin increases filtration pressure
140
What effects does angiotensin II have?
| Urinary system
Increases blood pressure (arteriolar constriction and ADH secretion)
Stimulates secretion of aldosterone from zona glomerulosa of adrenal cortex
141
What effect does aldosterone have on reabsorption and secretion?
Increases reabsorption of Na+ and Cl- from distal convoluted tubule
Increases reabsorption of Na+ from the collecting ducts
Increases K+ secretion
142
As the filtrate descends through tubules in the medulla of the kidneys, what happens to it?
Becomes increasingly concentrated:
Water moves out into interstitial tissue
Solutes remain in tubule
Urea diffuses into tubule
143
As the filtrate ascends through tubules in the medulla of the kidneys, what happens to it?
Becomes less concentrated:
Water is retained in tubule
Solutes enter interstitial fluid
144
What is reabsorbed (into capillary) in the distal convoluted tubule?
What is secreted (into tubule)?
Reabsorbed: Water, Na+, Cl-, Ca2+
Secreted: K+, H+
145
What are the definitions of reabsorption and secretion in the nephrons of the kidneys?
Filtration?
Reabsorption= transport (active or passive) from the tubular fluid to the peritubular capillaries
Secretion= transport (active) from the interstitial fluid to the tubular fluid
Filtration=movement of water and solutes across glomerular capillaries into nephron
146
What are the advantages of extensive filtration of plasma?
Fast clearance of foreign/waste products out of plasma
| Simple homeostasis-if water/ions aren't needed to maintain homeostasis, they are excreted
147
Which specialisations in the glomerulus allow a large volume of filtrate to be generated?
1. Fenestrations of epithelial cells-prevents filtration of RBCs but allows components of blood plasma to pass through
2. Basal lamina prevents filtration of larger proteins
3. Slit membrane between pedicels (of podocytes) prevents filtration of medium-sized proteins
148
Which features of the renal corpuscle increase its filtering capacity?
Large surface area
Low resistance to movement of fluid (thin and porous nature of filtration membrane)
High level of glomerular capillary blood pressure
149
What is the 'filtration fraction'?
The fraction of plasma in the afferent arterioles of the kidneys that becomes filtrate
150
What 3 factors affect glomerular filtration rate?
Glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure
Glomerular capillary flow rate
Glomerular capillary surface area
151
What is GFR?
Glomerular filtration rate
| Amount of filtrate produced in kidneys per minute
152
When there are local alterations in blood flow and pressure, which mechanisms maintain normal GFR (autoregulation)?
Dilation of afferent arteriole
Dilation of glomerular capillaries
Constriction of efferent arteriole
153
What makes up the juxtamedullary apparatus?
Juxtaglomerular cells (arteriole cells) and macula densa (tubule cells)
154
How is autoregulation of GFR acheived?
Macula densa cells in tubule (ascending loop of Henle) detect an increase in GFR
They send a paracrine signal which causes vasoconstriction of the afferent arteriole
155
Are there specific membrane transporters for urea?
No
156
How are proteins reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule?
Endocytosis, degraded to amino acid in tubular cells, then moved to capillaries via carrier-mediated transport
157
What is reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries in the proximal convoluted tubule?
```
Na+ (active transport, Na+/K+ pumps)
Anions (electrochemical gradient)
Water (osmosis)
Amino acids and glucose (secondary active transport)
Urea (diffusion)
HCO3- (facilitated diffusion)
K+ (diffusion)
```
158
Where does secretion of ionised organic acids and bases take place?
Proximal convoluted tubule
159
What is secreted by the peritubular capillaries into the proximal convoluted tubule?
H+ (via antiporters)
160
How does the countercurrent system work in the Loop of Henle?
Descending loop is freely permeable to water but not Na+ or Cl-
Ascending loop is not permeable to water, but the thick ascending limb actively pumps out Na+, K+ and Cl- from filtrate to ECF
This increases the osmotic pressure of ECF, which draws more water out of the descending loop so that the filtrate becomes increasingly concentrated
To prevent the ECF becoming too diluted, much of the secreted water is taken in by the vasa recta
161
What does ADH do?
Insets water pores (AQP2) into apical membrane of collecting duct, increasing renal water absorption
Restores blood volume and pressure
162
What happens to ADH secretion when an animal drinks a large amount of water in a short space of time?
It decreases (causing reduced water reabsorption and increased water in urine)
163
Which hormone enables active reabsorption of Ca2+ from DCT to capillary?
Parathyroid hormone
164
How is Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion increased in the principle cells of the renal collecting duct?
Increased activity of existing channels and pumps
| Synthesis of new channels and pumps
165
Which hormone increases Na+ absorption and K+ secretion?
Aldosterone
166
What does the hormone erythropoietin do? What releases it and when?
Production of RBCs
Released by kidneys in times of low O2
Targets red marrow of bone marrow and speeds up maturation and release of immature RBCs
168
Does urine composition change between the collecting ducts and bladder?
No except in horses-glands in the renal pelvis and upper ureter secrete mucous
Equine urine is therefore quite viscous
169
What sympathetic effects enable the bladder to fill?
| Which neurotransmitter acts on which receptors?
Relaxation of detrusor muscle (noradrenaline, beta-2)
| Contraction of internal sphincter (noradrenaline, alpha-1)
170
What somatic motor effect enables the bladder to fill?
| Which neurotransmitter acts on which receptor?
Continuous excitation of the external urethral sphincter muscle (acetylcholine on nicotinic receptors)
171
What parasympathetic effects cause the bladder to empty?
| Which neurotransmitter acts on which receptor?
Contraction of detrusor muscle
Relaxation of internal sphincter
Via acetylcholine acting on muscarinic receptors
172
What somatic motor effect causes the bladder to empty?
Inhibition of continuous excitation of external sphincter
173
How is positive feedback achieved during urination?
Urine stimulates sensory cells in the urethra, which increases parasympathetic stimulation of detrusor muscle
174
Why can an animal, up to a point, delay bladder emptying?
External urethral sphincter muscle is under voluntary control
175
What are the limits for pH of ECF?
Between 7.35 and 7.45
| Above or below=acidosis or alkalosis
176
What is the single biggest input of acid under normal conditions?
CO2 from production of ATP
| CO2 + H2O -> <- H+ + HCO3-
177
What effect does increased plasma CO2 have on plasma pH?
Makes it more acidic, decreased pH
| more H+ produced
178
In the DCT, how is secretion of H+ regulated?
Type A cells secrete H+ into tubule during acidosis and reabsorb HCO3-
179
What is the difference between respiratory and metabolic acidosis?
Respiratory acidosis occurs when CO2 accumulates because of hypoventilation
Metabolic acidosis occurs when non-respiratory acids accumulate
180
What is plasma osmolarity monitored by?
Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus
181
What are the stimuli for ADH release?
```
Plasma osmolarity (increased)
Blood pressure (decreased)
Blood volume (decreased)
```
182
What does angiotensin II do?
Vasocontriction of arterioles
Aldosterone secretion
ADH secretion
Increase blood pressure (via medulla oblongata reflexes)
183
What does ANP do?
(opposite to aldosterone)
Decreases blood pressure, ADH secretion, aldosterone secretion
Increases water and Na+ secretion
Vasodilation of afferent arterioles
In response to high blood pressure
184
What does aldosterone do?
Increases blood pressure
Increases Na+ reabsorption from kidney tubules
Increases K+ secretion into tubules/urine
185
When does potassium retention occur?
When pH falls
186
What is azotaemia?
| What causes it?
Abnormally high levels of nitrogen-containing compounds in the blood (eg urea)
Caused by decreased GFR
187
What are the 3 types of azotaemia?
| High levels of nitrogen-containing compounds in blood
Pre-renal: Reduced blood supply to kidney
Renal: Intrinsic disease of kidney
Post-renal: Blockage of urine flow below the kidneys
188
How can you distinguish between pre-renal and renal azotaemia?
Renal= animal can NOT concentrate urine
| can if pre-renal
189
What key changes in blood are associated with kidney dysfunction?
Increased urea and creatine
Increased K+
Decreased HCO3-
Metabolic acidosis
190
What key changes in urine are associated with kidney dysfunction?
Glucose in urine
Protein/amino acids in urine
Dilute urine (unable to concentrate urine)
191
What is Addison's disease?
Hypoadrenocorticism
Causes decreased aldosterone secretion:
Decreased Na+ reabsorption, decreased K+ secretion, bradycardia, hypovalaemic shock
213
Which are of the bladder is sensitive to expansion and signals to the brain that it needs to empty?
Trigone
