Relationships - Done Flashcards
1
Q
What did Charles Darwin notice in regards to reproduction?
A
Evolution favours some features that are attractive to the opposite sex which make it more likely that the individual will attract a mate and reproduce to pass on genes
2
Q
What is sexual selection?
A
The process by which traits that increase reproductive success are passed on to succeeding generations of offspring?
3
Q
What are the two types of sexual selection?
A
- Inter-sexual selection
- Intra-sexual selection
4
Q
What is inter-sexual selection?
A
Traits that enable an individual to attract members of the opposite sex, indicators of attractiveness
5
Q
What is intra-sexual selection?
A
- A strategy used by males
- Competition between members of this sex to access to mates
- The winner gets to reproduce and pass his offspring the traits that enabled them to be victorious
6
Q
What is Anisogamy?
A
The differences between male and female sex cells
7
Q
What does Anisogamy dictate?
A
Different optimum mating strategies for males and females
8
Q
What are the key facts about male gametes?
A
- Created continuously in vast numbers from puberty to old age
- Don’t require much energy to produce
- The later investment that is made in offspring is far less compared to females
9
Q
How does male gametes influence partner preference?
A
- Will seek short-term relationships with fertile women and can produce healthy offspring:
- Indicators of this are youthful appearance and an hourglass figure
10
Q
How does what men seek in a partner influence reproductive success?
A
- The most adaptive reproductive behaviour is to mate with numerous females in order to best increase the chances of his genes being passed down to further generations
11
Q
What are the key facts about the female reproductive system (evolutionary explanation?
A
- 1 female egg is produced only once and only till menopause and require great energy to produce
- Females make a large investment in time, commitment and other resources during and after the birth of her offspring
12
Q
How does the female reproductive system influence partner preference?
A
- They seek a long term relationship with a male who has the resources to provide and protect her and her offspring
- Indicators of this include a mesomorph physique, a strong jawline and traits like intelligence
13
Q
How does partner preference in women increase reproductive success?
A
- As females can only have a limited number of offspring it is most adaptive for females to carefully choose a male with desirable traits
- This increases the likelihood that those desirable traits get passed onto the male offspring and then be chosen by the next generation.
14
Q
What are the strengths of the evolutionary explanation?
A
- Supporting evidence for sex differences in partner preferences (Buss study)
- Supporting evidence for sex differences in reproductive behaviour (Clark and Hatfield study)
15
Q
What are the weaknesses of the evolutionary explanation?
A
- Lacks temporal validity
- Clark and Hatfield supporting evidence has methodological flaws
16
Q
What is Buss’ cross cultural study?
A
- Conducted a cross cultural study of 32 cultures
- Found men placed more emphasis on physical attractiveness and preferred someone younger
- Women favoured men with resources or traits such as intelligence
17
Q
What is the Clark and Hatfield study?
A
- They sent out male and female uni students to a uni campus and were asked to approach other students asking if they would go to bed with them tonight.
- 75% of men agreed to the question but no women did
18
Q
What methodological flaws does the Clark and Hatfield study have?
A
- The sample of participants may not be representative of the wider population due to age and culture
- University culture makes casual sex more acceptable than other areas of society
19
Q
What do men find attractive?
A
- Hourglass figure
- Youthful appearance
- Younger women
20
Q
What do women find attractive?
A
- Mesomorph physique
- Chiselled jawline
- Resources
21
Q
Why do men prefer symmetrical faces?
A
It indicates genetic fitness
22
Q
Who are attracted to neotenous features?
A
Men
23
Q
What is neotenous features?
A
- Large eyes
- Small nose
24
Q
Why are men attracted to neotenous features?
A
- Indicates a protective and caring instinct in females, more youthful looking
25
What is the definition of the halo effect?
When one stand out feature has a disproportionate effect on our judgement of the person as a whole
26
What is the phrase Dion et al coined in the halo effect?
'What is beautiful is good'
27
What does 'what is beautiful is good' mean?
- An error in judgement where a person judges someones character based on first impression of appearance
- Good looking people are consistently rated as kind, social compared to unattractive people
28
Who created the matching hypothesis?
Walster (1969)
29
What is the matching hypothesis?
- We assess our own attractiveness, and it plays a role in our choice of partner
- We are drawn to the most attractive people, but when entering a romantic relationship we pick people at a similar level to us
- These partners are the most rewarding we could realistically hope for
- We are attracted to people who are physically attractive but also attainable
30
What are the 3 factors affecting romantic relationships?
- Physical attractiveness
- Levels of self disclosure
- Filters
31
What are the two elements under physical attractiveness as a factor for affecting romantic relationships?
- Halo effect
- Matching hypothesis
32
What are the strengths of the role of physical attractiveness?
- Supporting evidence of physical attractiveness across all cultures
- Supporting evidence of the halo effect
- Supporting evidence for the matching hypothesis
33
Who's research is supporting evidence for physical attractiveness across all cultures?
Cunnigham et al
34
What did Cunningham et al find (in physical attractiveness)
Females with large eyes and small noses were consistently rated as highly attractive by white, hispanic and asian male
35
Who's research supports the role of the halo effect?
- Palmer and Peterson
- Wheeler and Kim
36
What did Palmer and Petersons study find (halo effect)?
Physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgable and competent than unattractive people
37
What did Wheeler and Kim's study find (halo effect)?
American and Korean participants rated physically attractive people as more trustworthy and friendly
38
What research supports the matching hypothesis?
- Murstein
- Feingold
39
What was Murstein's study and what did they find? (matching hypothesis)
- Asked puts to rate the attractiveness of a series of photographed people
- Some were engaged irl among the photographs
- Found the ratings of those who were engaged were more similar to one another found ratings of random photograph pairings
40
What did Feingold's study find? (matching hypothesis)
Carried out a meta-analysis of 17 studies and found a significant correlation in attractiveness ratings between romantic partners
41
What are the weaknesses of the role of physical attractiveness?
- Evidence against the matching hypothesis
42
What research disproves the matching hypothesis?
- Walter et al
- Taylor et al
43
What did Walter et al's study find? (matching hypothesis)
Regardless of their own level of attractiveness, participants reacted more positively to physically attractive dates and more likely to try and arrange more dates with them
44
What did Taylor et al's study find? (matching hypothesis)
No evidence among online daters that their choice were based on similarity between their own physical attractiveness and potential partners
Found evidence of a preference for the most attractive partners
45
What is the definition of self-disclosure?
voluntarily revealing information
46
What is social penetration theory?
- Compares self disclosure to peeling an onion
- At first people share a breadth of information but is largely superficial (this is low risk things which won't have negative consequences)
- As the relationship advances the disclosure of information increases as a person shares more intimate and personal information. These disclosures can be high risk (secrets, past experience etc)
47
What researchers have found the type of self disclosure is important?
- Sprecher
- Shaver
48
What did Sprecher find about self disclosure?
- The more personal, emotional disclosure have a greater influence on our relationship satisfaction than neutral or factual self disclosure
49
What did shaver find about self-disclosure?
- Found that for a relationship to be successful, self disclosure needs to be reciprocal. This increases intimacy and deepens the relationship
50
What is the strength of self disclosure?
Supporting evidence of sprecher and Hendrick and Laurenceau
51
What is Sprecher and Hendricks study and what did they find? (self disclosure)
- Studied heterosexual dating couples and found a strong positive correlation between perceived self disclosure and relationship satisfaction
52
What is Laurenceau et al study and what did they find? (self disclosure)
- Used a method which involves long term married couples writing a daily diary
- They found the perception of self disclosure in relationships was linked to higher levels of intimacy
53
What are the weaknesses of self disclosure?
- Methodological issues
- Cultural differences in self disclosure
54
What are the methodological issues with self disclosure?
Sprecher and Hendrick found a correlation so cause and effect cannot be established so satisfaction may be due to other variables
55
What cultural differences is their in self-disclosure?
- Americans disclose more than Chinese or Japanese partners
- In the west, women prefer more self disclosure than me
- In Japan, women disclose less than men
56
What does filter theory suggest?
We use a series of filters to narrow down the field of available to a field of desirables from which we choose a long-term partner
57
What are the 3 filters in filter theory?
- Social demography (1st level)
- Similarity in attitudes (2nd level)
- Complementarity of needs (3rd level)
58
What is social demography? (filter theory)
- Refers to variable such as age, social background and geographical location
- Determines the likelihood of people meeting
- We find people more attractive as we have more in common
59
What is similarity in attitudes? (filter theory)
- Agreement on attitudes and basic values
- Partners with different attitudes are not considered acceptable
- It promotes attraction
60
What is complementarity of needs? (filter theory)
- Those with different needs like each other as they provide mutual satisfaction
- Promotes the feeling that together partners form a whole
61
What are the strengths of filter theory?
- Supporting research by Kerchoff and Davis
62
What was Kerchoff and Davis study and what did they find? (filter theory)
- Carried out a longitudinal study of dating couples in the US using questionares
- For those dating less than 18 months, similarity of attitudes was most significant of how close they felt to the partner
- For those dating over 18 months, complementarity of needs was the most predictive of how close they felt to the partner
63
What are the weaknesses of filter theory?
- There has been a failure to replicate Kerchoff and Davis findings
- Contradictory evidence
- Lacks temporal validity
64
Who failed to replicate the findings of Kerchoff and Davis? (filter theory)
- Levinger et al
- Found no evidence that similarity in attitudes or complementarity of needs influenced the length of relationships
65
Who has contradictory evidence against filter theory?
- Anderson et al
66
Why did Anderson et all study contradict filter theory?
- They found that couples become more similar over time
67
Why does filter theory lack temporal validity?
The rise of online dating has reduced the importance of social demography
68
What are the three theories of romantic relationships?
- Social exchange theory
- Equity theory
- Investment theory
69
What does social exchange theory propose?
Relationships are like business transactions in which partners receive rewards, it is an economic theory
70
What do individuals conduct in social exchange theory?
A cost-benefit analysis
71
What is the cost benefit analysis in social exchange theory?
Rewards (maximise) - costs (minimise) =. profit (satisfaction and maintenance
72
When will we be satisfied according to social exchange theory?
When the rewards outweigh any costs so we are in profit
73
What does social exchange theory class as costs?
- Time
- Stress
- Energy
- Compromise
74
What is the minimax strategy in social exchange theory?
Attempt to maximise rewards and minimise costs
75
Should rewards and costs be equal in social exchange theory?
Yes
76
What is the comparison level in SET?
- What we think /expect we deserve
- Based on previous relationships, self esteem, media
- If the profit level is greater than the CL the relationship will be satisfying
77
What is comparison level for alternatives in SET?
- What we think we would get in potential alternatives
- This should be low
- If the profit level in our current relationship is greater than CL alt then it is likely to last
78
What are the 4 stages of relationship development according to SET?
- Sampling
- Bargaining
- Commitment
- Institutionalisation
79
What is sampling in SET?
Exploring the rewards and costs of social exchange by experimenting with them in our relationship and observing others
80
What is bargaining in SET?
Romantic partners start exchanging rewards and costs and identifying what is more profitable
81
What is commitment in SET?
The sources of rewards and costs become more predictable, and the relationship becomes more stable as the rewards increase and the costs lesson
82
What is institutionalisation in SET?
The norms, and rewards and costs are now established in the relationship, and it becomes settled.
83
What is the strength of SET?
Supporting evidence of CL alt (Sprecher study)
84
What is Sprechers study and what does it show regarding SET?
- Carried out a longitudinal study
- Found that the exchange variable ,out associated with relationship commitment was CL alt
- When CL alt is high, satisfaction is low
85
What are the negatives of SET?
- Problems establishing cause and effect
- Many researchers do not accept some of the assumptions of SET
86
Why are their problems establishing cause and effect with SET?
- It is a correlation
- Only shows a relationship between CL alt and satisfaction not that one causes the other
87
Which researchers disagree with SET?
Clark and Mills
88
Why do Clark and Mills disagree with SET
- Not all relationships involve economic exchange and reward
- Distinguish between exchange (do involve reward monitoring) and communal (exchange of rewards but not keeping score) relationships
- Romantic relationships are more likely to be communal
89
What does equity theory suggest?
- Extends ideas of SET
- Suggests what is missing from SET is perception of equity
- Walter suggests what matters most is that both partners level of profit is roughly the same
90
What does equity theory state if a relationship is perceived as equitable?
That if a relationship is perceived as equitable, then it will be satisfying and more likely to be maintained than one which is inequitable
91
What is equity in equity theory?
- the amount/size of costs do not have to be the same for each partner
- It is the ratio between rewards and costs that need to be roughly the same
92
What does it mean if one partner is under benefited in equity theory?
- They will have a lower level of profit in comparison to their partner
- Causes dissatisfaction in terms of hostility, resentment and humiliation
93
What does it mean if one partner is over benefited in equity theory?
- The person has a higher level of profit than their partner
- Causes dissatisfaction in terms if guilt as you are getting a better 'deal'
94
What does equity theory predict a strong positive correlation between?
Inequity and dissatisfaction
95
What did Hatfield and Rapson suggest about equity theory?
- Perceiving inequity motivates us to restore the status quo
- This may involve one or more of: restoration of actual equity, psychological equity or physical or emotional separation
96
What is the restoration of actual equity?
Voluntarily setting things right or urge the partner to do so
97
What is the restoration of psychological equity?
Distorting reality and convincing yourself things are fair
98
If unable to restore, what is physical or emotional separation?
Divorcing or no longer having feelings for the partner
99
What is the strength of equity theory?
There is supporting evidence from real life relationships by colleagues
100
What is the supporting research for equity theory?
- Carried out a survey of 118 recently married couples measuring equity with self report scales
- The husband and wives were aged between 16 and 45 and had been together more than 2 years before marriage
- Those that saw their relationship equitable were most satisfied
101
What are the weaknesses of equity theory?
- Difficult to establish causality
- Doesn't consider individual differences
102
Why does equity theory find it difficult to establish causality?
- Research shows inequity and dissatisfaction are linked but the nature of the casual relationship itself is unclear
- Clark says in most relationships, couples do not think in terms of reward and equity. if they do it indicates a problem with the relationship
103
Why can equity theory be criticised for failing to consider individual differences in relationships?
- Not all partners are concerned about achieving equity
- Huseman et al suggested that some people are less sensitive to equity than others
- They created 3 types (benevolents who are givers, sensitives follow the theory, and entitled prefer to be over-rewarded)
104
What is the key principles of Rusbults investment model?
- An economic theory
- The model was created to address the weaknesses of SET
- Emphasises the importance of commitment in relationships
105
According to the investment model, what 3 factors affect commitment?
- Satisfaction
- Alternatives
- Investments
106
What does commitment influence according to the investment model?
Future stay or leave decision
107
What is satisfaction in the investment model?
- The extent to which romantic partners feel the rewards of the relationship (company, flowers etc) exceed the costs (time, effort)
- It is concerned with gratification
108
What is alternatives in the investment model?
What romantic partners feel they deserve and what they could get
109
What is investments in the investment model?
- Assessments of losses associated with ending the relationship such as money and friends
- Investments increase dependance on the relationship because they increase connections to the partner that would be costly to break
110
What is the commitment level in the investment model?
- This is the intention or desire to maintain and continue with the relationship
- A high commitment level would come from high satisfaction, low alternatives and high investments
111
What are the strengths of the investment model?
- Supporting evidence - Le and Agnew
- Strong explanatory power
112
What is Le and Agnews study which supports the investment model?
- Carried out a meta-analysis of 52 studies from 5 different countries
- Across all studies, satisfaction level, quality of alternatives and investment size were all highly correlated with relationship commitment
- Relationships with greatest commitment were the most stable and lasted the longest
113
Why does the investment model have strong explanatory power?
- Victims of abuse have low satisfaction but stay with the abuser
- This is explained by the investment model and investments may be high so commitment to maintain the relationship may be made
114
What is the weakness of the investment model?
- Problems establishing cause and effect
115
Why does the investment model have problems establishing cause and effect?
- It argues that investment size determines commitment
- But causality cannot be established as commitment may be caused by other factors such as cultural beliefs and religion
116
What are the weaknesses applicable to all economic theories?
- Measuring the concepts of economic theories is difficult (hard to measure a reward)
- Are culturally biased (Based on a individualistic culture which is prioritising our needs, so not applicable to a collectivist culture where the whole families or societies needs are considered)
117
What does Duck's model of relationship breakdown propose?
- The ending of a relationship is not a one off event, it is a process
- Each stage begins when a certain threshold is reached
- There are 3 types of relationship breakdown (preexisting doom, mechanical failure and sudden death)
118
What are the 4 stages of relationship breakdown?
- Intrapsychic phase
- Dyadic phase
- Social phase
- Grave dressing phase
119
What is the threshold for the intrapsychic phase?
'I can't stand it anymore'
120
What is the threshold for the dyadic phase?
'I'd be justified in withdrawing'
121
What is the threshold for the social phase?
'I mean it'
122
What is the threshold for the grave dressing phase?
'It's now inevitable'
123
What is the intrapsychic phase?
- Happens when a person becomes dissatisfied in a relationship
- Focuses on cognitive processes occurring within the individual
- Likely to brood over their dissatisfaction, dwelling on the negatives and assessing other potential partners
124
What is the dyadic phase?
- Shifts to the interpersonal processes between the partners
- Likely to confront their partners and bring up concerns and dissatisfactions
- Feelings of guilt, anger and hostility are likely to be aired
- Discussions how to resolve the the relationships happen
125
What is the social phase?
- Focus is on the wider processes across among the couples social networks
Plans to break up are openly shared to others
- Gossip among friends and families is initiated and alliances are formed
- People taking sides may speed up the breakdown by offering previously secret information
- Usually the point of no return
126
What is the grave dressing phase?
- The focus is on the aftermath
- Partners consolidate their own public version of the relationship story
- The story is designed to protect self esteem and paint a favourable picture for future partners
127
What are the weaknesses of ducks model?
- Accused of being oversimplified and incomplete
- Has methodological issues
- Fails to explain why relationships break down
128
What is the strength of ducks theory?
- It has real life applications as it can be used in couples therapy to circumvent relationship breakdown
129
Why is ducks model seen as being incomplete and oversimplified?
- Suggests a linear process
- Ducks revised model adds a 5th phase called the ressurection phase. This is that they move beyond the pain using the experiences gained from the recently ended one
130
Why does ducks model have methodological issues?
- Based on retrospective research which is open to distortion as participants must rely on their memory of the process
131
What are virtual relationships?
- Are those that are conducted using technology
- Referred too as computer-mediated communication (CMC)
132
What is reduced cues theory?
- Suggests that CMC involves less self disclosure than FTF interaction
- This is because there are fewer non verbal signs such as verbal expressions, body language
- Reduced cues makes us feel de-individuated (anonymous) which encourages us to communicate in a impersonal way and even aggressive which leads to a reluctance of others to self disclose
133
What is the hyper-personal model?
- Virtual relationships can be more personal and involve more self disclosure than FTF ones
- The sender of CMC has more time to construct messages than FTF
- So it is easier to manipulate our self dislocrue online in a way that promotes intimacy, by presenting a positive idealised self image
- In CMC there may be a temptation to become 'hyper-dishonest'
134
What is the boom and bust phenomenon?
- People reveal more about themselves earlier than in FTF interactions and because of this virtual relationships get intense quickly
- But as the underlying trust is lacking, it is hard to sustain the relationship
135
What are the strengths of virtual relationships?
- Supporting evidence (Whitty and Johnson)
- Supporting evidence for the benefits of virtual relationships (Baker and Oswald)
136
What are the weaknesses of virtual relationships?
- There are arguments against reduced cues theory
- CMC is not a single concept
137
What did Whitty and Johnson find regarding virtual relationships?
- Found that the questions asked in online discussions tend to be very direct, probing and intimate
- Responses were direct and to the point
138
What did Baker and Oswald find regarding the benefits of virtual relationships?
- Surveyed 207 students about their shyness, Facebook usage and quality of freindships
- Greater use of Facebook was associated with higher perceptions of friendship quality for those who scored high on shyness
139
What is the argument against reduced cue theory?
- The cues are not reduced, they are just different
- This may include the time taken to respond shows how interested a person is
- The use of emojis substitute facial expressions
- Snap, insta allow for live interaction
140
What does it mean that CMC is not a single concept?
- Self disclosure may be lower if using video/online dating to communicate as there is the possibility of a FTF meeting at some point
- But if CMC is taking place om internet forums, its unlikely you will ever meet the person so self disclosure may be greater
141
What are gates?
Are obstacles that get in the way of attracting a partner
142
What are the 3 types of gates?
- Visual gates (clothing, hair, weight, height)
- Non verbal (mannerisms, facial expressions, body language)
- Psychological gates (personality, mental health)
143
What does McKenna argue is a huge advantage of VR and why?
- The absence of gating
- It allows the relationship to get off the ground in a way that's less likely to happen in FTF
144
What is a parasocial relationship?
Are one sided, unreciprocated relationships, usually with a celebrity on which the 'fan' expends a lot of emotional energy, commitment and time but the other person doesn't know they exist
145
What are the three levels of parasocial relationships
- Entertainment social
- Intense personal
- Borderline pathological
146
What did Giles and Maltby use to identify the three levels of parasocial relationships?
The celebrity attitudes scale
147
What is the entertainment social level of PSR?
- Being attracted to a favourite celebrity because of their perceived ability to become a source of social interaction and gossip
148
What is the intense personal level of PSR?
Possessing obsessive thoughts and feelings about a celebrity such as thinking your soul mates
149
What is the borderline pathological level of PSR?
Uncontrollable behaviours and extreme fantasies about celebrities such as spending large amounts of money on them
150
According to the absorption addiction mode, why do people pursue parasocial relationships?
Due to deficits in their real life
People may follow celebrities to gain a sense of personal identity and fulfilment
151
What is the absorption component of the absorption addiction model?
- The fan may absorb themself in the other persons life
- This involves being pre-occupied with them, focusing all time and attention
- This can happen due to underachievement, dissatisfaction or a weak sense of personal identity
152
What is the addiction component of the absorption addiction model?
- If the level of absorption is high enough it may become addictive
- Like a typical addiction the object of PSR become more important than any other part of life and the fan is driven to increasingly more extreme behaviour to maintain their connection such as following the celeb
153
What is a strength of the absorption addiction model and why?
- Supporting research
- Maltby et al found that entertainment social level was linked to extroversion, intense personal was linked to obsessive traits and borderline pathological level was linked to psychotic traits
154
What is a weaknesses of the absorption addiction model and why?
- There are methodological issues with the supportive research
- The supportive research only shows a relationship so can't establish casuality between parasocial relationship development and personality defects so there may be caused by other factors
155
What 3 properties of adult attachment do parasocial relationships show?
- Proximity seeking behaviour
- A secure base
- Protest at disruption
156
How does proximity seeking behaviour link to parasocial relationships?
Wanting to be physically and emotionally close to the celeberity such as collecting trivia and re organising schedules to see them on TV
157
How does secure base behaviour link to parasocial relationships?
Exploration of other relationships if parasocial relationship is present and provides a sense of safety
158
How does protest at disruption behaviour link to parasocial relationships?
Prolonged distress experienced at separation of persona
159
How does parasocial relationships develop according to attachment theory?
- A result of attachment difficulties
- This is because a healthy internal working model is not developed
- Those who are insecure resistant (type C) are most likely to form this type of relationship
160
Why are those who are insecure resistant most likely to develop a parasocial relationship?
Because they have unfulfilled needs and developing a PSR can meet these needs without the threat of rejection or break ups associated with real relationships
161
What is the strength of attachment theory and why? (parasocial relationships)?
- Supporting evidence
- Cohen had 381 adults complete a questionare about their relationships to favourite TV characters and their attachment style
- Viewers expecting to lose exposure to their favourite characters anticipated negative reactions like sadness and anger like the loss of a personal relationship
- Those anticipating more extreme reactions were more likely to be insecure resistant
162
What is the weakness of attachment theory and why? (parasocial relationships)
- Not all research supports it
- McCutcheon et al measured attachment types and celebrity rated attitude in 299 participants
- They found that participants with insecure resistant attachment weren't more likely to form parasocial relationships with celebrities than securely attached people
