Memory - Done Flashcards
1
Q
Who proposed the multistore model of memory?
A
Atkinson and shiffrin
2
Q
When was the multistore model proposed?
A
1968
3
Q
What does the multistore model suggest?
A
That information within memory travels in a linear way through free distinct stores of memory which are separate and function independently
4
Q
What are the 3 stores of the multi store model of memory?
A
- Sensory register
- Short term memory
- Long term memory
5
Q
What does encoding mean?
A
The way/form in which the information is represented
6
Q
What does duration mean?
A
How long the information is stored for
7
Q
What does capacity mean?
A
The amount of information that is held
8
Q
How is the sensory register, In MSM, encoded?
A
Through the senses, E.g. Echoic, Iconic etc
9
Q
What is the sensory registers, in MSM, capacity?
A
Unlimited
10
Q
What is the duration of information in the sensory register (MSM)?
A
1/4 to 1/2 a second
11
Q
How is information lost in the sensory register?
A
Through Decay
12
Q
How is information transferred from the sensory register to the short term memory?
A
Attention
13
Q
What part of the MSM does Sperlings 1960 experiment relate too?
A
Sensory register
14
Q
What was the procedure of Sterling’s 1960 experiment on the sensory register?
A
- P’s were presented with letters for a fraction of a second
- They reported what they saw and what they could recall
15
Q
What was the findings of Sterlings 1960 experiment on the sensory register?
A
- Most could only recall 4-5 letters but knew there was more
16
Q
What was the conclusion of Sterlings 1960 experiment on the sensory register?
A
- Duration is limited
- Capacity is potentially unlimited
- If you don’t pay attention, the information decays
17
Q
How is information encoded in short term memory, in MSM?
A
Acoustically
18
Q
Who conducted a experiment on coding in the STM, for MSM?
A
Baddeley
19
Q
What was the procedure of Baddley’s experiment on coding within STM (MSM) ?
A
- Participants were presented with a list of words
- One list had similar sounding words, the other list was dissimilar sounding words
- P’s had to remember as many words from the list they were given
20
Q
What was the findings of Baddeley’s experiment on the coding within STM (MSM)?
A
- Immediate recall was better for unsimilar words (recall of 80%)
- Recall was worse for similar words (recall of 10%)
21
Q
What was the conclusion of Baddeley’s experiment on the coding within STM (MSM) ?
A
- STM tends to code information according to acoustic sound
22
Q
What is the capacity of the short term memory in the multi store model?
A
- 5-9 / 7+-2
23
Q
Who conducted an experiment on STM capacity for the MSM?
A
Miller 1956
24
Q
What’s the procedure of Miller’s 1956 experiment?
A
- Participants were given words and digits to learn and recall
25
What was the findings of Miller's 1956 experiment?
Most P's are able to recall 5-9 items
26
What was the conclusion of Miller's 1956 experiment?
Short term memory has a limited capacity
27
What is the duration of STM in the MSM?
20 seconds unless the info is rehearsed
28
Who conducted a experiment on the duration of memory in STM for the MSM?
Peterson and Peterson (1959)
29
What was the procedure of Peterson's and Peterson's experiment?
- They asked P's to remember random trigrams and to recall them after different time delays
- During the different time delays, P's had to count back in 3s
30
What was the findings of Peterson's and Peterson's experiment?
- The longer the delay, less trigrams recalled
- 80% recalled after a 3 second delay
- 10% recalled after a 19 second delay
31
What was the conclusion of Peterson's and Peterson's experiment?
STM has a limited duration when rehearsal prevented
32
How can information be kept in STM for longer than 20 seconds, in the MSM?
Maintenance rehearsal
33
How is information lost in STM in the MSM?
Through displacement
34
How does information move from STM to LTM according to the MSM?
Through rehearsal
35
How does information move from LTM to STM according to the MSM?
Through retrieval
36
How is LTM coded according to the MSM?
Semantically
37
Who conducted a experiment on coding within LTM for the MSM?
Baddeley
38
What was the procedure of Baddeley's experiment on LTM coding?
- P's presented with a list of words (either a similar list or dissimilar list)
- P's were asked to recall the words they were given
39
What was the findings of Baddeley's experiment on LTM coding?
- When P's were asked to recall the words after 20 minutes more dissimilar words were recalled than similar
40
What is the duration of LTM in the multistore model?
A potentially permanent duration
41
Who conducted an experiment on the duration of LTM (MSM)?
Bahrick - 1975
42
What was the procedure of Bahrick's experiment on the duration of LTM (MSM)
- P's asked to complete various tasks
- Asked to complete a free recall test, photo recognition test and named recall test for old-school friends
43
What were the findings of Bahrick's experiment on the duration of LTM (MSM)?
- Those tested within 15 years of grad school were about 90 percent accurate on recall
- Those tested 45 years after grad school were about 70% accurate
- Free recall was the worst across all participants
44
What was the conclusion of Bahrick's experiment on the duration of LTM (MSM)?
LTM theoretically has a unlimited duration and capacity
45
How is information lost from LTM according to the multistore model?
Interference and retrieval failure
46
What are the three types of LTM?
- Episodic
- Semantic
- Procedural
47
What is episodic memory?
- Our ability to recall events from our personal life
- These memories may also contain emotion
- We have to make a conscious effort to remember these memories as they are explicit memories
48
What is semantic memory?
- Our knowledge of the world, facts which are shared by everyone
- They begin as episodic memory but over time loses the association of personal experience and becomes a semantic memory
- They are also explicit memories
49
What is procedural memory?
- Concerned with skills
- We can recall these memories automatically
- Acquired through practice and repetition
- Don't require conscious thought
50
What is a strength of types of long term memory?
There is supporting evidence
51
How does brain scans provide supporting evidence for types of long term memory?
- Shows there's different types of LTM
- Limbic system: Procedural
- Hippocampus: Episodic
- Temporal lobe: Semantic
52
What case study provides supporting evidence for types of long term memory?
Clive Wearing
53
What is the case study of Clive Wearing?
- He can play the piano but doesn't know he can
- Knowledge of facts and figures is missing
54
What is a weakness of using the case study to support types of long term memory?
It is the study of one person and may be unique
55
What are the strengths of the multi-store model?
- Supporting evidence
56
What supporting research can be used for evaluation on the multistore model?
- Sperling: sensory duration
- Baddeley: STM and LTM encoding
- Miller: STM capacity
57
What case study can be used to support the multistore model?
H.M
58
What is the case study of H.M?
- Suffered from retrograde amnesia as hippocampus was removed due to epilepsy
- Unable to recall from LTM but STM fine
59
What are the weakness of multistore model?
- Contradictory evidence
- Oversimplifies the theory
60
What is the contradictory evidence for the multi-store model?
The case of KF
61
What is the case study of KF?
- Had been injured in a motorcycle accident
- LTM functioned normally but STM impaired
- Could only hold items for visual STM but not verbal
- Shows that information can bypass STM to LTM
62
Why is the multi-store model claim to be oversimplified?
- Places a lot of emphasis on rehearsal in transfer of information between STM and LTM
- Information which hasn't been rehearsed can be retrieved from LTM and appears to be forgotten
- Memory is likely to be affected by the type of information which is being recalled
63
Who proposed the working memory model?
Baddeley and Hitch
64
When was the working memory model proposed?
1974
65
What does the working memory model suggest?
That the STM does not consist of a single unitary store but consists of active component stores holding different types of information
66
What did Baddeley find with those trying to do two similar tasks simultaneously?
They performed less well compared to two people doing dissimilar tasks
67
Who conducted the Dual processing experiment?
Baddeley
68
What model does the dual processing experiment relate too?
Working memory model
69
What is the procedure of the dual processing experiment?
Participants were asked to carry out two simultaneous tasks requiring the use of separate components
70
What was the findings of the dual processing experiment?
When participants were asked to carry out two tasks that use the same component the performance was was less efficient than carrying out individually
71
What was the conclusion of the dual processing experiment?
It showed that sound and vision are processed separately by different stores.
72
What are the working memory models components?
- Central executive
- Visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer and phonological loop
- LTM
73
What are the roles of the central executive?
- Is the control centre which acts as a processor dealing with incoming information and sending it out to the sub-systems
- Uses all 5 senses
- Directs attention to particular tasks
74
What is the capacity of the central executive?
Very limited capacity
75
What is the capacity of the central executive?
Virtually no capacity
76
What type of coding does the phonological loop have?
Acoustic
77
What are the two sub-systems of the phonological loop?
- Phonological store
- Articulatory control system
78
What does the phonological store do?
- Holds the memory of sounds and stores the words heard
- Verbal information is kept in a speech based format for 1-2 seconds
- Known as inner ear
79
What does the articulatory control system do?
- Rehearses information through sub-vocalisation to keep the information alive in the store
- Known as the inner voice
80
What area of memory does the word length effect experiment relate too?
Phonological loop
81
What is the procedure of the word length effect experiment?
Participants were given single syllable words or multi-syllable words to recall
82
What was the findings of the word length effect?
Baddeley found that participants could remember more single syllable words than multi-syllable ones, they called this the word length effect
83
What is the conclusion of the word length effect experiment?
Provides strong evidence that we can hold as much as we can say in 1-2 seconds, supporting the duration of the phonological store
84
What is the role of the visuospatial sketchpad?
- Temporary storage system used for manipulation, planning and understanding of visual information and spatial information
85
What is the capacity of the visuospatial sketchpad?
about 3-4 objects
86
What are the two sub-components of the visuospatial sketchpad?
- Visual Cache
- Inner scribe
87
What is the role of the visual cache?
Stores visual data regarding form and colour
88
What is the role of the inner scribe?
Stores spatial and movement data, this involves rehearsing information from the visual cache
89
What is the procedure for the research into the visuospatial sketchpad?
- Two tasks that would utilise the visuospatial sketchpad either separately or at the same time
- One task was to use a pointer to track a point of light moving around a screen
- The other task was to imagine a capital F and mentally move round the edge of the letter classifying the angles
90
What is the findings of the research into the visuospatial sketchpad?
- Participants were able to perform the tasks separately without any difficulty
- When they were done together their performance was impaired
- If one of the tasks was done with a verbal task it was as good as a visual task alone
91
What is the conclusion of research into the visuospatial sketchpad?
When tasks are using the limited capacity of the visuospatial sketchpad it is unable to handle information that uses the same type of information
92
What is the episodic buffer?
How information coming from short-term memory can be integrated into the long-term memory
93
What is a strength of the working memory model?
- Supportive evidence
- Practical applications
94
What case study can be used to support the working memory model?
K.F
95
What is the practical applications of the working memory model?
- It helps explain those with dementia so can help us learn how to treat it
- Those who are dyslexic and ADHD have limited phonological loop ability but superior ability in visuospatial
96
What is a weakness of the working memory model?
- Vague and untestable concepts
- Unclear how central executive actually works
97
When does interference occur?
When one memory disrupts the ability to recall another
98
What is proactive interference?
Previous information causes forgetting of new information
99
What researchers conducted a study on proactive interference?
Keppel and Underwood
100
What is the experiment for proactive interference?
- Participants were presented with trigrams
- Asked to recall at different time intervals
- During time interval where asked to count back in threes
- Participants forgot the trigrams at the end of the list regardless of time delay
101
What is retroactive interference?
New information causes forgetting of old information
102
What researcher studied retroactive interference?
McGeoch and Mcdonald
103
What was the experiment that investigated retroactive interference?
- Asked to learn a list of words until they could recite them perfectly
- Participants divided into six groups
- 5 groups were asked to learn another set of interfering information and one was told to rest
- Participants were asked to recall the first list
- Those in synonym group had most forgetting
- more similar the information, easier to forget
104
What are the strengths of the interference theory of forgetting?
- Supporting evidence
- Supporting evidence from natural experiments ( Baddeley rugby)
- Practical applications
105
What are the practical applications of interference theory of forgetting?
- Helps teachers in education as they can understand how people forget information and how to prevent it
106
What is a weakness of interference theory of forgetting?
There are limitations in the theory in explaining forgetting
107
Why are there limitations in interference theory?
- Doesn't explain the cognitive process involved
108
What is retrieval failure theory?
- Also known as cue dependant forgetting
- Forgetting occurs due to a absence of cues
109
What is the encoding specificity principle?
Memory is the most effective when information present at the time of encoding is also present at time of retrieval.
110
What are the three different type of cues according to retrieval failure theory?
- Semantic
- Context dependant
- State dependant cues
111
What are semantic cues
Cues often have a meaningful link to the information that is being learned
112
Who conducted research on semantic cues?
Tulving and Pearlstone
113
What was the procedure of the research investigating semantic cues?
- Participants were given words to learn which belonged to certain categories
- During the recall stage, one group of participants were given the category heading and one group free recalled the words
114
What were the findings of the research investigating semantic cues?
- The free recall group forgot 60% of the words compared to the category heading who forgot 40% of the word
115
What is the conclusion of research investigating semantic cues?
Forgetting occurred due to the absence of category heading cues
116
What are context dependant cues?
External cues, such as the environment we were in at the time of learning, can remind us of the material we learnt.
117
Who conducted research into context dependant cues?
Baddeley
118
What was the procedure of research into context dependant cues?
- Participants were sea divers
- Were asked to learn 36 words on land or underwater
- They then recalled the information in the same or different context
119
What were the findings of research into context dependent cues?
- Only 23% of words were recalled when learning took place underwater and recalling took place on land
- 37% of words were recalled when both learning and recall took place on land
120
What was the conclusion of research into context dependant cues?
Forgetting occurred due to the absence of environmental cues
121
What are state dependant cues?
Internal cues, such as mental or emotional state we were in in the time of learning can remind us of the material we learnt
122
Who conducted research on state dependant cues?
Goodwin et al
123
What was the procedure of the research for state dependant cues?
- 48 males medical students were asked to learn words whilst intoxicated or sober
- They where then asked to recall the words in one of these states
124
What were the findings of the research into state dependant cues?
Most forgetting occurred when participants were drunk at learning and sober at recall
125
What was the conclusion of the research into state dependant cues?
Forgetting occurred due to the absence of physiological cues
126
What is the strengths of retrieval failure theory?
- Supportive evidence
- Practical applications (education)
127
What is the weakness of retrieval failure theory?
- Limitations in theory
- Encoding specificity principle hard to test
128
What is eyewitness testimony?
- The legal term referring to the use of eyewitnesses giving evidence to the police or in court concerning the details of an incident or crime
129
What is the least trustworthy type of evidence in court?
Eyewitness testimony
130
Why can eyewitness testimony be extremely unreliable?
Because memories are fragile, become easily distorted and are therefore reconstructed
131
What are the two factors that affect the reliability of eyewitness testimony?
- Misleading information
- Anxiety
132
What is misleading information?
Incorrect information given to the eyewitness which can unintentionally distort the memory of the original crime
133
What is a leading question?
Is one that is phrased in a way which implies a particular answer
134
What was the aim of Loftus and Palmer experiment
To investigate whether leading questions would result in eyewitness testimony being inaccurate
135
What is the procedure of Loftus and Palmers experiment
- Conducted a ab experiment
- 45 participants were shown a film of a car accident then put into 5 groups
- Asked the speed of the car - how fast were the car going when they ____ into each other?
- Smashed, collided, bumped, hit, contacted
136
What was the conclusion of Loftus and Palmers experiment?
Being exposed to leading questions after an event has occurs can distort the witnesses memory for that event
137
In Loftus and Palmers experiment, how fast did participants say the car was going when the smashed verb was used?
41 mph
138
In Loftus and Palmers experiment, how fast did participants say the car was going when the contacted verb was used?
32 mph
139
What is post event discussion?
Refers to witness discussions with each other about the event after it had occurred
140
What is the source monitoring effect?
Witnesses' memories become distorted as confusion can occur over where then information came from originally
141
What is the memory conformity effect?
Witnesses' memories become distorted as they believe the other eyewitnesses to be right and think that they are wrong and so often go along with each other accounts to win social approval
142
What was the aim of Gabbert et al study?
To investigate the effects of post-event discussion on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
143
What was the method of Gabbert et al study?
- Investigated memory conformity effects between pairs of participants who watched a simulated crime event on video
- Participants were told they were seeing the same footage, but were seeing it from different perspectives
- Experimental condition were allowed to discuss before doing a recall test, control weren't
144
What percentage of participants recalled information they had not seen with those who had post event discussion in Gabbert's study?
71%
145
What percentage of participants recalled information they had not seen when no post event discussion occurred in Gabbert study?
0%
146
What is the conclusion of Gabbert et al study?
Being exposed to post event discussion distorted the witnesses memory for that event through the source monitoring effect
147
What are the strengths of misleading information as a factor affecting EWT?
- High in reliability (lab experiments)
- Practical applications
148
Why does misleading information as a factor affecting EWT have practical applications?
- Has been used to warn the justice system of problems with relying on EWT
- Led to the development of the cognitive interview
149
What are the weaknesses off misleading information affecting EWT?
- Low in ecological validity (lab experiment)
- Contradictory evidence
150
What researcher found contradictory evidence for misleading information affecting EWT?
Yuile and Cutshall
151
What was Yuile and Cutshall study?
- Investigated witness to a real life armed robbery in canada
- 4 months after the event, witnesses were asked to recall details of the crime, they included two misleading questions
- All witnesses were accurate, none of the original witnesses were influenced by misleading information
152
What is anxiety in the context of EWT?
A state of emotional and physical auroral in response to a stressful situation
153
What study shows anxiety improves accuracy of EWT?
Christianson and Hubinette
154
What was the aim of Christianson and Hubinette study?
To investigate whether anxiety can have a positive effect on EWT recall when the event involved a real threat to a persons life.
155
What was the procedure of Christianson and Hubinette study?
- 110 real life witnesses who had witnessed bank robberies in Sweden
- Some were onlookers (low anxiety) and some were bank clerks (directly threatened and how moderate to high anxiety)
- Interviews were conducted 4-15 months after the event to test for accuracy
156
What was the findings of Christianson and Hubinette study?
- All witnesses had good recall, better than 75% recall
- Bank clerks had the best recall
157
What was the conclusion of Christianson and Hubinette study?
Anxiety improved the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
158
What study shows anxiety impairs the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?
Johnson and Scott
159
What was the aim of Johnson and Scott study?
To see if anxiety affects the accuracy of eyewitness testimony and facial recognition
160
What was the procedure of Johnson and Scott study?
- Participants were invited to a lab where they were told to wait in reception area
- In the no weapon condition, overheard a conversation in the lab about equipment failure and a man walked past holding a pen and hands greasy
- In the weapon condition, participants overheard a heated argument and heard breaking glass, a person ran into the reception area holding a bloody knife
- Participants shown 50 participants and asked to identify the person
161
What was the findings of Johnson and Scott study?
- No weapon condition (pen) correctly identified the person 49% of the time
- In weapon condition (knife) correctly identified the person 33% of the time
162
What was the conclusion of Johnson and Scott study?
- Knife condition had higher anxiety and were more likely to focus attention on weapon not the face - weapon focus effect
- Higher the anxiety reduces accuracy of eyewitness testimony
163
What is the Yerkes Dodson law?
- Suggests that performances improves with physiological or mental arousal up to a certain point
- Low and high anxiety produces inaccurate recall
- Moderate anxiety produces very accurate recall
164
What are the strengths of anxiety affecting EWT?
- Christianson and Hubinnete is high in ecological validity
165
What are the weaknesses of anxiety affecting EWT
- Christianson and Hubinnete lack internal validity
- Individual differences which affect the influence of anxiety on EWT
- Johnson and Scott findings may not be due to anxiety (may be surprise)
166
What are the features of a standard police interview?
- Bombarded with a series of direct, close ended questions
- Often interupted
- Not allowed to talk freely
- Rushed through details
167
What may be the affect of a standard police interview?
- Could distort EWT
- Lack of context cues
- Lack of detail and elaboration
168
Who developed the cognitive interview?
Geiselman and Fisher
169
What are the key features of the cognitive interview?
- Minimised distractions
- Actively listening and not interrupting
- Asking open-ended questions
- Uses retrieval cues
- Has 4 components
170
What are the 4 components of the cognitive interview?
- Report everything
- Context reinstatement
- Change order
- Change perspective
171
What is the component report everything in the cognitive interview?
- Witness asked to report every single detail of the incident no matter how trivial or insignificant it may seem
172
What is the component context reinstatement in the cognitive interview?
Witness is asked to mentally recreate the environment where the incident took place
173
What is the component change order in the cognitive interview?
Witness is asked to report the incident in different chronological orders, moving backward and forward in time
174
What is the component change perspective in the cognitive interview?
The witness is asked to report the incident from a different perspective
175
What is the strength of the cognitive interview?
Supporting evidence from Geiselman et al and Fisher et al
176
What is the procedure of Geiselman et al experiment?
- Participants shown a simulated crime and interviewed on their ability to recall details
- Interviewed using standard, cognitive interview or hypnosis
177
What is the results of Geiselman et al experiment?
Standard police interview: 29% accurate recall
Cognitive interview: 41% accurate recall
Hypnosis: 38% accurate recall
178
What was the procedure of Fisher et al experiment?
Fisher trained detectives in a Miami police station to use the cognitive interview with real eyewitnesses
179
What is the results of the Fisher et al experiment?
When the cognitive interview was used in comparison to standard police interview, witnesses recalled significantly more detail
180
What are the weaknesses of the cognitive detail?
- Impractical (expensive and time consuming)
- Not all techniques viewed favourably
181
Why is not all techniques viewed favourably in the cognitive interview?
- In a survey of UK police forces only the report everything and context reinstatement were frequently used
- Police believed changing perspective misled witnesses into speculating and guessing about the event witnessed
