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AQA A-level Psychology > Biopsychology - Brain scanning and bio rythms left too do > Flashcards

Biopsychology - Brain scanning and bio rythms left too do Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the key facts about the nervous system?

A
  • Is made up of billions of neurons
  • The brain recieved sensory inputs from the bodys receptors mainly via the spinal cord
  • The brain is connected to the muscles of the skeleton and controls internal organs
  • It collects, proceses and responds to information from the enviroment
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2
Q

What are all the parts of the nervous systems?

A
  • Central nervous systems
  • Peripheral nervous system
  • Autonomic nervous system
  • Somatic nervous systems
  • Parasympathetic division
  • Sympathetic division
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3
Q

What is included in the central nervous system?

A

Brain and spinal cord

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4
Q

Whats included in the peripheral nervous system?

A

Cranial nerves and spinal nerves

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5
Q

Whats included in the autonomic nervous system?

A

Heart muscle, smooth muscle, glands

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6
Q

Whats included in the somatic nervous system?

A

Voluntary skeletal muscles

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7
Q

What does the parasympathetic division do?

A
  • ‘Rest and digest’
  • Slows the body down and reverses the effects of the sympathatic branch
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8
Q

What does the sympathetic division do?

A
  • ‘Active and alert’
  • Prepares the body for the survival response ‘fight or flight’
  • Active during sports
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9
Q

How many major divisions in the nervous systems are there?

A

2

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10
Q

What are the 2 major divisions of the nervous systems?

A
  • Central nervous system
  • Periphral nervous system
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11
Q

What is the spinal cord responsible for?

A

Reflex actions such as movements and the reflex arc

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12
Q

What is the brain the centre of?

A

Conscious awareness

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13
Q

What are the 3 main parts of the brain?

A
  • Cerebellum
  • Cerebral cortex/cerebrum
  • Brain stem, medulla
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14
Q

What is the outer layer of the cerebrum?

A

Cerebral cortex

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15
Q

How many lobes does the cerebral cortex have?

A

4

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16
Q

What are the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex?

A
  • Frontal lobe
  • Parietal lobe
  • Temporal lobe
  • Occipital lobe
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17
Q

What is the function of the frontal lobe?

A

Motor movements, personality and deciision maker, Brocas area (production of speech)

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18
Q

What is the function of the temporal lobe?

A
  • Proccessing auditory information
  • Wernickes area (understanding language)
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19
Q

What is the function of the occipital lobe?

A

Proccessing visual information

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20
Q

What is the function of the parietal lobe?

A

Processes sensory information

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21
Q

Where are the 4 cortex’s in the brain?

A
  • Motor cortex - frontal lobe
  • Auditory cortex - temporal lobe
  • Visual cortex - occipital lobe
  • Somatosensory cortex - parietal lobe
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22
Q

What does the peripheral nervous system connect to?

A

Connects central nervous system to the rest of the body

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23
Q

What are the two parts of the peripheral nervous system?

A
  • Somatic nervous system
  • Autonomic nervous system
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24
Q

What is the key information about the somatic nervous system?

A
  • Controls voluntary movement in the skeletal muscles
  • Contains sensory neurons and motor neurons
  • Sensory neurons transmit signals from the body to the brain
  • Motor neurons transmit signals from the brain to the body
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25
Q

What is the key information about the autonomic nervous system?

A
  • Regulates involuntary functions
  • Recieves signals from sensory neurones to create involuntary responses in caradic and smooth muscles to regulate function such as heart rate and digestion
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26
Q

What are the two sub divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

A
  • Sympathetic nervous system
  • Parasympathetic nervous system
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27
Q

What is the sympathetic nervous system?

A

Controls our responses when we are in an emergency/threatening situation to provide rapid energy - ‘fight or flight’ response

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28
Q

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

Returns our body to its normal resting state after an emergency has passed, refered to as ‘rest and digest’

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29
Q

What is the structure of neurons?

A
  • Contails a cell body (soma) which contains a nucleus (stores genetic code)
  • Dendrites branch our from the cell body and carry impulses to other neurons
  • Axon projects away from the cell body and carries the signals recieved by the dendrites to other neurons
  • Myelin sheath - a white fatty substance which insulates the axon and speeds the rate of conduction of signals
  • Terminal - where a impulse can be transmitted to another neuron
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30
Q

What are the 3 types of neurons?

A
  • Motor
  • Relay
  • Sensory
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31
Q

What is the structure of a motor neuron?

A

Short dendrites protrude directly from the cell body which is at one terminal, impulse carried away by long axon to another terminal

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32
Q

Where are motor neurons located?

A

Cell body is inside the Central nervous system
Axon is inside peripheral nervous system

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33
Q

What is the function of a motor neuron?

A

Controls muscles and organs (effectors)

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34
Q

What is the structure of a relay neuron?

A

Short dendrites carry impulse to cell body, impulse carried away to very short axon

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35
Q

What is the location of relay neurons?

A

Entire Neuron is inside central nervous system?

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36
Q

What is the function of relay neurons?

A

Allows motor and sensory neurons to communicate

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37
Q

What is the structure of a sensory neuron?

A

A long dendrite carries impulse to the cell body whic is at the side of a short axon (cell body has no dendrites itself)

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38
Q

Where is sensory neurons located?

A

Cell body is outside the central nervous system
Axon is inside the peripheral nervous system

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39
Q

What is the function of sensory neurons?

A

Carry nerve impulses

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40
Q

Describe the knee-jerk reflex

A

1) receptors on the skin (sense organ) detect the tap (stimulus)
2) Sensory neuron carries impulse to central nervous system
3) Impulse transmitted to relay neuron in central nervous system where sensation is proccesses
4) Impulse carried to the peripheral nervous system
5) Impulse transmitted to motor neuron
6) Receptors on muscles (effector) contract (response) - knee moves in response

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41
Q

What is synaptic transmission?

A

Refers to how neurons communicate with (transmit messages to) one another

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42
Q

What happens before action potential occurs in synaptic transmission?

A

The activated cell changes from its negative resting state to a positive activated state

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43
Q

What happens during synaptic transmission?

A

1) Action potential travels down the axon
2) Impulse travels down the axon on the pre-synaptic neurons, reaches the terminal buttons which triggers the release of neurotransmitters from the vesicles
3) Neurotransmitters diffuse through the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the post synaptic neurone
4) Stimulation off post synaptic receptors by neurotransmitters results in exicitation or inhibition of the post - summation
5) Leftover neurotransmitters is reuptake, broken down by enzymes or diffuses

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44
Q

What does the neurotransmitters contents at the synapse determine?

A

Whether the synapse is excitatory or inhibitory

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45
Q

What happens if the neurotransmitters is excitatory in synaptic transmission?

A

The post synaptic neuron is instructed to ‘fire’ (conduct a action potential)

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46
Q

What happens if the neurotransmitter is inhibitory in synaptic transmission?

A

The recieving neuron is instructed not to ‘fire’ (not to conduct action potential)

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47
Q

What happens when a post synaptic neuron recieves both inhibitory and excitatory inputs in synaptic tranmission?

A

It adds them together - where it fires or not depends on which is greater, this is known as summation

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48
Q

Describe excitatory neurotransmitters

A
  • Are ‘on switches’
  • Increase the likelehood that a signal is sent to the post synaptic neuron
  • This is then more likely to fire as it becomes positively charged - called excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP)
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49
Q

Name two examples of excitatory neurotransmitters?

A
  • Dopamine
  • Noradrenaline
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50
Q

Describe inhibitory neurotransmitters?

A
  • Are ‘off switches’
  • Decreases the likelehood that a signal is sent to the post synaptic neuron because it becomes more negatively charged
  • This is called inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP)
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51
Q

Name two examples of inhibitory neurotransmitters

A
  • GABA
  • Serotonin
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52
Q

What does normal brain function and activity rely on?

A

A careful balance between excitatory and inhibitory functions

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53
Q

What can a imbalance of excitatory and inhibitory influences cause?

A

Neurological and mental disorders

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54
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A
  • Works alongside the nervous system
  • Is a network of glands within the body
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55
Q

What are glands?

A
  • Secrete various hormones into the bloodstream, which then have an effect on organs that have cells with receptors for those hormones
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56
Q

What does glands effects on the organs influence?

A

Processes such as growth, metabolism and reproduction

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57
Q

Describe the pituitary gland?

A
  • Known as the ‘master gland’
  • Secretes hormones itself but also controls the activity of all other glands in the body
  • Sits just below the hypothalamus and can be divided into anterior lobe (front) and posterior lobe (back)
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58
Q

What is the anterior lobe responsible for in the pituarity gland?

A
  • Releasing the hormone ACTH
  • This hormone stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol during times of chronic stress to give us energy
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59
Q

What is the posterior lobe of the pituarity gland resposible for?

A
  • Releasing the hormone ocytocin
  • Responsible for producing contractions in the uterus during childbirth
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60
Q

What is the hormone associated with the thryoid gland?

A

Thyroxine

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61
Q

Where is the thyroid land located?

A

Front of windpipe (trachea)

62
Q

What is the function of the thyroid gland?

A

Regulate metabolic rate (turns food into energy)

63
Q

What hormone is associated with the ovaries?

A

Oestrogen

64
Q

Where are the ovaries located?

A

Behind the pelvis, above the uterus?

65
Q

What is the function of ovaries?

A

Development of sex characteristics in women (breasts, pubic hair) and regulation of the menstrual cycle and fertility

66
Q

What is the hormone associated with testes?

A

Testosterone

67
Q

Where are the testes located?

A

Inside the scrotum

68
Q

What is the function of testes?

A

Development of male sex characteristics (lowers voice, sperm production) and regulation of aggressive behaviours

69
Q

What is the hormone associated with the adrenal medulla gland?

A

Adrenaline

70
Q

Where is the adrenal medulla located?

A

Kidneys

71
Q

What is the function of the adrenal medulla?

A

Prepares the body for fight/flight by increasing heart rate etc

72
Q

What is the flight or fight response?

A

Describes the response to acute stress - a sudden threat or emergency. This activates a serious of events in the nervous system

73
Q

What is the process of the fight or flight response?

A
  • Hypothalamus is stimulated and detects acute stressor
  • A signal is sent down the sympathetic branch of the nervous system
  • A message is sent to the adrenal medulla that releases adrenanline and noradrenaline
  • Adrenanline is released that prepares body for fight or flight
  • The parasympathatic nervous system restores the body back to homeostasos - rest and digest
74
Q

What two hormones are associated with fight or flight response?

A

Adrenaline
Noraadrenaline

75
Q

What are the effects of the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline in the fight or flight response?

A
  • Blood being diverted away from the skin and too vital organs - increasing heart rate and blood pressure
  • Rapid respiration to boost oxygen supply to the brain
  • Pupils dilate
76
Q

What are the physical responses of the fight or flight response intended to do?

A

To help a person survive a dangerous situation by preparing you to either run away or defend yourself

77
Q

What are the weaknessses of the fight or flight response?

A
  • Human behaviour is not limited to just two responses
  • Doesnt explain stress response in females
  • Can have a negative effect on health
78
Q
A
79
Q

Why is ‘human behaviour is not limited to just two responses’ a criticism of the fight or flight response?

A

Gray suggests that the first response to danger is to avoid confrentation alothether, which is shown by a ‘freeze’ response
During the freeze response, humans are hypervigilant while they appraise the situaton to decide the best course of action for that particular threat

80
Q

Why doesn’t the fight or flight explanation fully explain the stress response in females?

A

Taylor suggests that females have evolved a ‘tend and befreind’ response: tending to offpsring and befreinding other females for social support
Highlights beta bias in the area of psychology as we assumed females and males respond the same so it can be limitely applied to women

HOWEVER, has prompted recent research which has provided an alternate explanation that applies to females

81
Q

Why can the fight or flight response have a negative effect on health?

A

The fight or flight response may of been a useful survival mechanism for ancestors that faced life threatening situations, modern day like rarely requires such a intense response
Fight or flight response can increase blood pressure, cause damage to blood vessels and contribute to heart disease - Therefire the theory is maladaptive

82
Q

What is the largest part of the brain

A

Cerebrum

83
Q

How thick is the top layer of the cerebrum

A

1 cm thick

84
Q

What is the cerebrum known as?

A

Cerebral cortex

85
Q

How many hemispheres does the brain have?

A

2 - left and right

86
Q

What are the two hemisphers of the brain connected by?

A

Fibres called the corpus callosum

87
Q

What does the brain being contralateral mean?

A

Areas in the right hemisphere recieve information from and are concerned with activities in the left side of the body (and vice versa)

88
Q

What does localisation of funtion mean?

A

Different areas if the brain are responsible for different behaviours or processes

89
Q

What is localisation of function also known as?

A

Cortical specialisation

90
Q

What are said to be localised to specific areas of the cortex?

A

Functions such as language, visual perception and movement

91
Q

If the brain is localised then what does it mean if a certain area is damaged?

A

The functions in that area will be affected

92
Q

What are the 4 cortexs?

A
  • Motor
  • Somatonsensory
  • Visual
  • Auditory
93
Q

Where is the location of the motor cortex?

A

Located in the frontal lobe

94
Q

What is the specific function of the motor cortex?

A

Controls voluntary movement in opposite side of body - contralateral

95
Q

What would be the consequence of damage to the motor cortex?

A

Loss of control in fine motor movements

96
Q

Where is the somatosensory cortex located?

A

Located in parietal lobe

97
Q

What is the function of the somatosensory cortex?

A

Collects sensory information from skin

98
Q

What is the conseuqence of damage to the somatosensory cortex?

A

Decreased sensation

99
Q

Where is the visual cortex located?

A

Occipital lobe

100
Q

What is the specific function of the visual cortex?

A

Recieves and proccesses visual information - contralateral

101
Q

What is the consequence of damage to the visual cortex?

A

Blindness and not being able to recognise objects

102
Q

Where is the auditory cortex located?

A

Located in the temporal lobe

103
Q

What is the specific function of the auditory cortex?

A

It analyses and processes acoustic information

104
Q

What is the consequence of damage to the auditory cortex

A

deafness

105
Q

Where is Brocas area located

A

In frontal lobe

106
Q

What is the specific function of Brocas area?

A

Speech production

107
Q

What is the consequence of damage to Brocas area?

A

Talking slowly

108
Q

Where is Wernickes area located?

A

Located in temporal lobe

109
Q

What is the specific function of Wernickes area?

A

Speech comprehension

110
Q

What is the consequence of damage to Wernickes area?

A

Loss of meaningful speech

111
Q

What case study can be used to demonstrate localisation of function?

A

Phineas gage - iron rod went through his skull destroying most of left frontal lobe. He survived the accident but personality changes massively - became aggressive, vulgar, impulsive etc

112
Q

What is the supportive evidence for localisation of function for speech comprehension and production?

A

Peterson et al used brain scans to show Wernickes area was active during a listening task, whereas Brocas area was active during a speaking task

Suggested 2 areas were involved in different language functions

113
Q

What is supportive evidence for localisation of function for different types of LTM?

A

Tulving et al found that episodic and semantic memories were located to the temporal lobe of the brain and was demonstrated by conducting MRI scans which showed the temporal lobe was more active when these memories were accessed

114
Q

What evidence is there against localisation of function to do with speech production?

A
  • More areas involved in speech production than we think
  • Dronkers conducted an MRI scan on Tan’s brain to confirm Brocas findings, although there was a lesion in Brocas area they found evidence to suggest other areas may have contributed to the failure in speech production
115
Q

What is the contradcictory evidence for localisation of function?

A

lashley found that higher, complex cognitive processes are not localised to one area but are instead more widely distributed and involve every part of the cortex

Found this by removing areas of the cortex in raiys while they were learning a maze and found no area was more important

116
Q

What is the definition of hemispheric lateralisation?

A

Certain functions are controlled by one hemisphere rather than the other

117
Q

What hemisphere is language controlled by for most right handed people?

A

Left hemisphere

118
Q

What was Brocas research?

A
  • Original case was a brain damaged patient who could only speak one word (‘Tan’)
  • Patient could understand others speech and follow verbal instructions
  • Damage was found to be localised to the base of the left frontal lobe
  • Syndrome was called expressive aphasia
119
Q

What was Wernickes research?

A
  • Studied cases of brain damaged patients who could not understand speech
  • These patients could not follow verbal instructions
  • Patients could produce fluent speech but was often bizzare and meaningless
  • Autopsies revealed all patients had damage to top of left temporal lobe
  • This syndrome was called receptive aphasia
120
Q

What is the difference between left and right hemisphere?

A
  • Left hemisphere = language and is the analytic side of the brain
  • Right hemisphere = recognition and is the creative side of the brain
121
Q

What are split brain patients?

A

Are those who have undergon surgery to cut the corpus callosum

122
Q

Why did people have split brain surgery?

A

To relieve the symptoms of severe epilspey

123
Q

What is the effect of split brain surgery?

A

In these patients their two hemispheres function completely seperately as independant brains

124
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

A thick band of nerve fibers that divide the cerebral cortex lobes into right and left hemispheres

It connects the left and right sides of the brain allowing for communication between both hemispheres

125
Q

What was the aim of Sperrys research?

A

To investigate hemispheric lateralisation in split brain patients who have surgically seperated hemispheres to see whether each hemipshere is responsible for seperate functioning

126
Q

What was the procedure of split brain patients?

A
  • 11 epileptic males were asked complete a series of tasks which included sitting in front of a screen
  • Visual stimuli tests: asked to look at fixation point in middle of the screen and where then presented with words either to the left or right of the point for 1/10 sec
  • Tactile stimuli tests: participants were presented to the left or right hand behind the screen
127
Q

What was the findings of the visual stimuli tests in sperrys research?

A

If a participant is presented with the word key to the right visual field they would respond with the word verbally, if it was given in the left visual field they can’t respond verbally but can draw it

128
Q

What were the findings of the tactile stimuli tests in Sperrys research?

A

If participants had an object placed in right hand, able to describe the object verbally

If participants had an object placed in left hand, they can’t verbally describe it but can point to the correct image from pictures

129
Q

What is the supportive evidence to lateralisation of function and what is a strengh of the research?

A
  • Sperrys research
  • The research is highly reliable - due to lab conditions
130
Q

What is the weakness of the split brain research which supports lateralisation of function?

A
  • Unrepresentitive - only 11 split brain patients so low population validity
  • Control group did not have a history of epilepsy so can’t be compared properly
  • Lacks ecological validty/mundane realism as very few people have severed corpus callosum and cannot see with both eyes
131
Q

What research can be used as a weakness of hemispheric lateralisation?

A

Turk et al studied a patient known as JW who suffered damage to left hemisphere but developed capacity to speak in the right hemisphere

Over time JW was able to verbalise information presented to each hemisphere of the brain - due to plasticity

132
Q

What does plasticity mean?

A

Refers to the brains ability to change/adapt in response to experience or learning

133
Q

What does ‘change’ mean in plasticity?

A

Neuronal reorganisation in the brain

134
Q

What types of neuronal reorganisation (change) does the brain do

A
  • Structural changes
  • Functional changes
135
Q

What are the types of structural changes does the brain do in neuronal reorganisation (plasticity)

A
  • Axon sprouting - neurons can sprout new axons allowing new synaptic connects to be made to other neurons
  • synaptic pruning - nerve pathways frequently used develop stronger connecttions, nerve pathways not often used will die out (pruning)
136
Q

What is functional changes in the brain (plasticity)?

A
  • Functional recovery
  • After injury or illness the functions of damaged brain areas are taken over by undamaged areas
137
Q

Explain plasticity in the new born brain

A
  • Most rapid growth in synaptic connections
  • Synaptic connections peak at around 15,000 at age 2-3 years
  • This is about twice the amount in a adult brain
138
Q

Why does the adult brain end up with far fewer synaptic connections than new borns?

A

With age, old, unused, weak connections are deleted - ‘synaptic pruning’
Remaining connections become strenghned
Means neuronal pathways can become more refined and efficient

139
Q

What is a hemispherectomy?

A

A last resort treatment for severe epilepsy that involves removing one hemisphere of the brain or disconnecting the two hemispheres

140
Q

What did Villablanca find (plasticity)?

A

If a damaged hemisphere is removed soon after birth, the infant can develop into an adult with no behavioural or cognitive impairments

141
Q

What research regarding taxi drivers supports plasticity?

A
  • London cabbies are required to take a complex exam called the knowledge which assesses their recall of around 25,000 city streets
  • McGuire found from MRI scans that the posterior hippocampus of cabbies was significantly larger in volume than a control group which were matched in IQ/education, age, handedness
  • Found a positive correlation: the longer they had been doing the job, the more pronounced the difference in their brains
  • Later research showed anterior hippocampus was smaller than in controls so visual memory poorer
142
Q

What are examples of causes of brain damaged?

A
  • Physical trauma/injury (blows to head)
  • Stroke (blood vessels burst or blocked)
  • Viral/bacterial infections (damages brain tissue)
143
Q

What are the 3 ways the brain can reorganise itself? (plasticity)

A
  • Axonal sprouting
  • Neurogenesis
  • Recruitment of homologous areas
144
Q

What is axonal sprouting?

A

When an axon is damaged, it loses the connection with a neighouring neuron. In some cases, other axons grow new nerve endings to form extra connections and replace the lost ones to establish a new neural pathway

145
Q

What is neurogenesis?

A

It is the process of forming new brain cells/neurons as well as new connections to neurons. Happens naturally through life but also occurs when brain is damaged

146
Q

What is recruitment of homologous areas?

A

Recruitment of homologous areas on the opposite side of the brain to perform specific tasks. E.g if Brocas area was damaged on the left side, the equivelant area on the right side might take over language function

147
Q

What is the supportive research for plasticity?

A

Kuhn 2014: Playing video games demands complex cognitive and motor skills. Grey matter in the cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum was significantly increased in participants who had been trained to play supermario for 30 min a day for 2 months

148
Q

What are the practical applications of plasticity research?

A
  • Has led to the development of treatments to help functional recovery
  • Stem cell research may in the future make neuronal transplantation possible - stem cells be planted into the damaged areas to restore functions
  • Rehabilitation techniques such as movement therapy and eletrical stimulation are used to counter some of the deficits experienced after brain damage
149
Q

Why does functional recovery depend on a number of factors (weakness of plasticity)?

A

Some research suggests there are individiual differences in the extent to which the brain recovers following injury

Schneider et al found 40% patients who achieved a disability free recovery had 16+ years of education, compared to only 10% of those who had less than 12 years of education

Teuber found recovery from brain damage in soldiers were more likely in those under 20 years (60% showed significiant improvement in movement and visual problems) compared to those over 26 years 1(20% improvement)

150
Q

Why can the effects of plasticity can be negative? (weakness of plasticity)

A
  • In some circumstances, the brains ability to rewire itself has maladaptive behavioural consequences
  • Medinal et al found prolonged use of recreational drugs causes brain reorganisation that results in poorer cognitive function, as well as increased risk of dementia
    -60-80% of amputees develop phantom limb syndrome where they still experience sensations in missing limbs, which are often unpleasant/painful. This results from reorganisation in the somatosensory cortex that occurs after the loss of a limb

AQA A-level Psychology (11 decks)

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