Approaches - done Flashcards
1
Q
What happened in 1879?
A
Wundt opens the first psychology lab
2
Q
When did the behaviourist approach emerge?
A
1913 to 1920s
3
Q
Who was the behaviorist approach established by?
A
The likes of Watson and Skinner
4
Q
When was the cognitive approach established?
A
1960s
5
Q
What did cognitive neuroscience merge?
A
Cognitive and biological approach
6
Q
When did cognitive neuroscience become a distinct discipline?
A
21st century
7
Q
What was the dominant approach in the 1980s?
A
Biological
8
Q
When was humanistic psycology developed?
A
1950s
9
Q
Who developed the humanistic approach?
A
Maslow
10
Q
When did psychodynamic’s emerge?
A
Late 1800s to early 1900s
11
Q
What happened in the 17th to 19th century?
A
Psychology begins a branch of philosophy called experimental philosophy
12
Q
What is science?
A
- It uses research to draw conclusions
- Differs from philosophy which only uses reason
- It is the approach of studying the world through observation and empiricism
13
Q
What does control mean?
A
Tests involve holding variables constant in order to establish cause and effect
14
Q
What is objectivity?
A
Researchers are unbiased and not influences by their personal feelings and experiences
15
Q
What does predictability mean?
A
The aim is to be able to predict future behaviour from research findings
16
Q
What does falsifiability mean?
A
- Hypotheses based on theory are tested to see if they are true or false
- Findings that contradict hypotheses are used to develop new theories.
17
Q
What does replication mean?
A
Findings should be repeated when tested on different occasions
18
Q
Who is the first psychologist?
A
Wilhem Wundt
19
Q
What did Wunt want from psychology?
A
He wanted it to be accepted as a distinct science in its own right and attempted to separate psychological theory from earlier philosophical ideas
20
Q
What was Wundts aim in his research?
A
- His aim was to investigate human consciousness
- He believed the best way to do this was breaking down a person’s observations of objects, images and events into separate parts.
- This became known as structurism
21
Q
What kind of method did Wundt use to find the basic structures of thought?
A
Scientific methods
22
Q
What does introspection mean?
A
- ‘Looking into’
- It is a process by which a person gains knowledge about their own mental and emotional states.
23
Q
What is the method of introspection?
A
- Participants were presented with a controlled stimuli. This was typically a moving image or sound such as a ticking metronome.
- The participant were then asked to provide a description of the inner processes they were experiencing - such as thoughts, feelings and emotions - whilst still looking or listening to the stimuli.
- Wundt attempted to record and compare peoples responses to specific stimuli
- The stimuli, surroundings and instructions was standardised.
24
Q
What are the strengths of Wundt’s work?
A
- He did his research in carefully controlled conditions. This encouraged other psychologists to be more scientific.
- His work had a big impact on later approaches in psychology. For example the cognitive approach focuses on the study of internal mental processes, which originated in Wundt’s work
25
What are the weaknesses of Wundt's work?
- Some believed introspection wasn't scientific or reliable because we can't study inner processes
- It cannot be used on children or animals to understand their behaviour due to their lack of vocabulary
26
What are the key assumptions of the behaviourist approach?
- All behaviour is learnt as babies and we are all born as 'blank slates'
- We learn through a stimulus - response relationship to our behaviour.
- Behaviour should be studied scientifically
27
What is the key information about John Watson?
- He established the psychological school of behaviourism in the 1920s
- Watson conducted research on animal behaviour, child rearing and advertising.
- Conducted the Little Albert experiment
Denied the existence of the mind and consciousness
28
What is classical conditioning?
learning through association.
29
Who did the first experiment on classical conditioning?
- Ivan Pavlov
- He did his research on dogs
- He made a dog saliva when a bell is rang like a dog automatically salivating at food
30
What is the process of classical conditioning?
Before conditioning:
Neutral stimulus = No response
Unconditioned stimulus = unconditioned response
During Conditioning:
UCS + NS = UCR
After conditioning:
Conditioned stimulus = conditioned response
31
What are the other 4 features of classical conditioning?
Generalisation: The tendency for a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus to give the same response.
Discrimination: Having a response to some stimuli but not others.
Extinction: When the conditioned stimulus no longer gives the conditioned response.
Spontaneous recovery: The sudden reappearance of the conditioned response after a period of apparent exticntion.
32
What is operant conditioning?
Learning through past consequences
33
What does reinforcement mean in operant conditioning?
Consequences given which means the behaviour is likely to be repeated
34
What does punishment mean in operant conditioning?
Consequences given which means the behaviour is less likely to be repeated.
35
What are the 4 features of operant conditioning?
Positive reinforcement: Providing something pleasant which results in the behaviour being repeated.
Negative reinforcement: Taking away something unpleasant which results in the behaviour being repeated.
Positive punishment: Providing something unpleasant which results in the behaviour being decreased
Negative punishment: Taking away something pleasant which results in the behaviour being decreased.
36
What was Skinner's research?
- He developed the theory of operant conditioning
- He designed a cage called a skinner box to investigate the process in rats
37
What was method of positive reinforcement experiment in rats (Skinner)?
- The rat moved around the Skinner box
-When it accidentally presses the lever, food is delivered into the cage.
- It is positive reinforcement due the rat increasing the behaviour.
38
What was the method of negative reinforcement in rats (Skinner)?
- The rat is subjected to a unpleasant stimulus of an electric shock
- If the rat presses the lever, it switches of the current
39
What is a strength of the behaviourist approach?
- Has practical applications to the real world. E.g. It can be used to treat phobias
- The approach relies heavily on laboratory experiments
40
What is a weakness of the behaviourist approach?
- Mostly based on animal research
- Provides a deterministic approach
41
What are the key assumptions of social learning theory?
- We learn by observing and imitating others in social contexts.
- Learning occurs as a result of indirect experiences, we do not need to be directly reinforced for behaviours.
- Considers the important meditational processes that occur between stimulus and response.
42
Who proposed SLT?
Bandura
43
What does SLT propose?
All behaviours that are observed will be learnt but we won't necessarily imitate them all.
44
What factor is involved in learning in SLT?
Cognitive
45
What are the four meditational factors in SLT?
Attention: A person must be focused on the model/task they are observing.
Retention: We must be able to remember information in order to imitate in our long term memory.
Replication: The ability to perform a behaviour we have seen a model demonstrate. We are not able to copy all behaviours.
Motivation: The desire to copy the behaviour. This will be influenced by rewards/punishment that follows the models behaviour.
46
What are the two types of models in SLT?
Live models: Real life people
Symbolic models: Fictional characters
47
When is imitation most likely to occur, according to SLT?
- If they are perceived positively
- If we share the same characteristics as the model.
- If they are rewarded.
48
What is identification in SLT?
- Feeling that a model is similar to us in some way
- Research suggests we are more likely to imitate same sex models compared to opposite sex models
-
with the model suggests we are likely to experience the same reinforcement/consequences as the model
49
What is vicarious reinforcement?
- When we see a model be reinforced for their behaviour, it either increases or decreases the likelihood of us imitating the same behaviour.
- When a individual receives vicarious reinforcement, this provides feedback on the consequences of the behaviour and they judge for themselves the likelihood of experiencing the same outcomes if they imitate the behaviour.
50
What was the aim of the Bobo doll study?
To investigate wether children would learn new behaviours when subjected to a model.
51
What was the procedure of the Bobo doll study?
- One condition saw the adult being an aggressive model to the children
- A second condition saw the children being subjected to a 'nice' model
- A third control condition involved the children not being subjected to any model.
- All participants were placed in each room with similar toys and the researchers observed their behaviour.
52
What was the result of the Bobo doll study?
- There was a difference in the behaviour shown by the subjects
- When shown a aggressive model the child showed aggressive behaviour
- The most aggression was showered by boys who had been exposed to a male aggressive model
- Same sex gave the highest imitation
53
How many participants were there in the Bobo doll study?
36 boys and 36 girls
54
What was the conclusion of the Bobo doll study?
We can be strongly influenced by other peoples behaviour
55
What are the strengths of SLT?
- Has applications in the real world. E.g. It has been used to explain criminal behaviour and aggression
- It is based on scientific evidence (lab experiments)
56
What are the weaknesses of SLT?
- The experimental evidence that supports SLT can be criticised for its methodology
- It can be criticised for adopting a nurture position when explaining human behaviour (ignores nature)
57
What are the key assumptions of the cognitive approach?
- Cognitive psychologists focus on internal mental processes.
- They assume that the mind is similar to a computer in terms of them both having inputs, processes and outputs.
- They believe processes can be studied indirectly by observing behaviour and making inferences about what is happening in the mind
58
What does cognition mean?
It is the mental action or processes of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience and the senses.
59
What are the 5 mental processes according to the cognitive approach?
- Language
- Attention
- Thinking
- Memory
- Perception
60
What is a schema?
- A mental framework about a concept
- We are all born with basic schema's, but they become more sophisticated over time
- Based on personal experience - indirect or direct
61
Why are Schema's useful?
- They provide a mental shortcut
- Help to interpret information quickly and effectively
62
Why are Schema's not useful?
- Reliance on Schema's can lead to perceptual errors and distortion of infomation
63
What was the aim of the early study in 1947 by Allport and Postman?
The aim was to study the ways schema's distort memory
64
What was the procedure of the early study by Allport and Postman?
- They showed an image to participants to study briefly
- Participants then had to read details of the picture
65
What was the results of the early study by Allport and Postman?
Most participants reported incorrectly that It was the black man in the photo who held the razor
66
What was the conclusion of the early study by Allport and Postman
The participants relied on their schema's which at the time often contains associations between black people and criminality
67
What are computer models in the cognitive approach?
Software simulations of internal mental processes that have been created with computer scientists to help us study and understand the processes
68
What are theoretical models in the cognitive approach?
- A representation of how information processing works.
- They are usually represented in picture/diagram form with boxes to represent structures and arrows to represent sequences.
69
What are inferences and why do they have to be used in the cognitive approach?
- Observing behaviour and using logic to draw a conclusion about what mental processes caused that behaviour
- It is used in the cognitive approach as the internal mental processes cannot be seen or studied directly.
70
What is cognitive neuroscience?
- A branch of psychology that combines the cognitive and biological approach
- Emerged in late 20th century when brain scanning techniques were developed
71
What does cognitive neuroscience study?
- Biological processes that underline mental/cognitive processes
- Specific focus is on neural actions in the brain which are involved in mental processes
72
What does cognitive neuroscience use?
- It uses neuro-imaging techniques
- These include PET and fMRI scans
73
What do neuro-imaging techniques provide?
- They provide an active image of the living brain
- They reveal what parts of the brain are being used while an individual is doing certain tasks
74
What is the role of the parietal lobe?
- Sensory perception
- Such as management of touch, sense smell etc
75
What is the role of the frontal lobe?
Voluntary movement
76
What is the role of the occipital lobe?
Visual processing center
77
What is the role of the temporal lobe?
Processing auditory infomation
78
What is the role of the cerebellum?
- Coordinates a wide range of functions in the brain and body
79
What parts of the brain is used in long term memory?
- Frontal lobe
- Temporal lobe
- Cerebellum
80
How is the frontal lobe used in long term memory?
- It is used when using episodic memory
-This is recalling personal facts and experiences
81
How is the temporal lobe used in long term memory?
- When using semantic memory
- This is facts and common knowledge
82
How is the cerebellum used in long term memory?
- When using procedural memory
- This is how to do things like motor skills
83
What is a strength of the cognitive approach?
- Practical applications to the real world. E.g. CBT
- Based on scientific evidence (brain scans etc)
84
What are the weaknesses of the cognitive approach?
- Experimental methods can be criticised for its methodology (lack of external validity)
- Considered reductionist
85
What are the key assumptions of the biological approach?
- They believe that to fully understand human behaviour we must look at physical structures in the body
- They believed our behaviour is largely inherited and so focuses on studying the influence of genes
- They believe all behaviour is due to nature
- They study the role of chemical changes in the nervous systems and the role of hormonal changes
86
What is the largest area of the brain?
Cerebrum
87
How many hemispheres does the cerebral cortex have?
2
88
How many lobes does each hemisphere of the brain have?
4 lobes
89
What was the case of Phineas Gage?
- His injury happened in 1848
- He was using explosives on the railroad. When packing the explosives, they went off early firing the packing rod through his head
- Only took 10 weeks to heal
-His personality changed
- When body was exhumed in 2012, the damage was to his frontal lobe
90
What are Genes?
Carry the code that determines a certain characteristic, both physical and psychological.
91
What is a genotype?
The inherited, unique genetic makeup of an individual, fixed at conception
92
What is an phenotype?
- The observable representation of a persons genotype
- Determined by genes and the environment
93
What gene puts a person at a greater risk of being a psychopath?
MAOA or 'warrior' gene
94
How can a person with the MAOA gene prevent becoming a psychopath?
Having a nurturing and loving environment/childhood
95
What is heritability ?
The extent to which a behaviour or characteristics can be attributed to genetics
96
What symptoms may a schizophrenic have?
- Hallucinations
- Delusions
97
How much of the general population suffer from schizophrenia?
1%
98
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemicals that transmit electrical messages from one nerve cell in the brain to another
99
What neurotransmitter has schizophrenia been associated with?
Over activity of dopamine
100
What neurotransmitter has depression being associated with?
Under activity of serotonin
101
What do evolutionary psychologists presume?
All human behaviour is influenced by physical and psychological predispositions that helped humans survive and reproduce in the past
102
What is evolution?
The processes of, over time, organisms changing to adapt to their environment
103
In a given environment how does a new genotype emerge?
- Genetic mutation
- Genes combining when two organisms mate
104
How does evolution benefit organisms?
- Enables it to deal with a threat
- Exploit its environments resources
- Increases reproductive success
105
What is natural selection?
A genotype becoming more widespread throughout the population
106
What does natural selection explain?
Evolution
107
What may happen if there is a change in the environment?
A selected genotype may become maladaptive and the species may become extinct
108
What was David Buss' study?
- He studied different cultures
- He found similarities in the qualities that people desired most in an romantic partner
- Across all cultures, there was a universal sex difference
109
What was the universal sex difference in David Buss' study?
- Women desire men with resources, e.g. money and shelter
- Men desire woman who are young and attractive
- This ensures chances of survival in offspring
110
What are the strengths of the biological approach?
- Has practical applications (SSRIs)
- Uses scientific methods (objective)
111
What are the weaknesses of the biological approach?
- Can be seen as reductionist
- Problem with research (MZ twins not 100% match)
112
What are the key assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?
- Behaviour is determined by early childhood experiences
- Behaviour is influenced by things in the unconscious mind
- Behaviour is motivated by drives: Eros, Libido and Thanatos
113
What did Freud believe the mind was like?
- An iceberg
- Most of its contents are beneath the surface
114
What are the three levels to the mind according to the PD approach?
- Conscious: thoughts and perceptions
- Preconscious: memories and stored knowledge
- Unconscious: Selfish needs, fears, unacceptable sexual desires
115
What is the role of the unconscious mind in the PD approach?
- To store biological drives, thoughts and memories that are seen as unacceptable or unpleasant
- These are repressed so we do not have to be aware of them
116
What is the Freudian slip?
- A persons true desires can only be examined by paying attention to slips of the tongue
- Also known as parapraxis
117
What are the three components of a persons personality according to Freud?
- ID
- Ego
- Superego
118
Which is the only element of personality according to freud that is entirely unconscious?
ID
119
What are the key features of the ID in the psychodynamic approach?
- Present from birth
- Called the pleasure principle (eros)
- Driven by basic selfish desires that are demanded to be satisfied immediately.
120
What are the key features of the Ego in the PD approach?
- Develops around the age of two years old
- Called the reality principle
- It is rational and uses logic to mediate between the ID and superego to achieve an acceptable solution
121
What are the key features of the Superego in the PD approach?
- Develops at around 5 years old
- Called the morality principle
- Strives to uphold moral standards
- Punishes ego with guilt for wrongdoings
122
According to the PD approach, what causes neurotic disorders?
- If the superego is allowed to dominate
123
According to the psychodynamic approach, what causes psychotic disorders?
- If the ID overpowers the ego and is allowed to dominate
124
What is a psychotic disorder?
- Disorders that are characterised by a loss of grip on reality
- E.g. Addictions and schizophrenia
125
What is a neurotic disorder?
- Disorders that are characterised by anxiety and guilt
- E.g. Anxiety, depression and OCD
126
What are defense mechanisms according to the PD approach?
- A way of helping the ego to balance the conflicting demands of the ID and the Superego
- They are unconscious strategies used by the ego to prevent anxiety when placed with unpleasant situations
- They distort reality
127
What are the 3 defense mechanisms according to the PD approach?
- Repression
- Denial
- Displacement
128
What does repression as a defense mechanism mean?
- Forcing a distressing memory into the unconscious mind
- This makes it no longer something we are aware off
129
What does denial mean as a defense mechanism?
- Refusing to acknowledge or admit a aspect of reality
130
What does displacement mean as a defense mechanism?
- Transferring an unacceptable emotion from the true source onto a substitute target that's seen as more acceptable
131
What are the key features of the psychosexual stages?
- The libido is focused on a particular erogenous zone in each stage
- The child gains pleasure by stimulating the erogenous zone
- There is a conflict in each stage that the child must resolve
- If the conflict isn't resolved then it leads to a fixation where the child is stuck in that stage
- The fixation manifests itself into certain personality traits in adulthood
132
What are the 5 psychosexual stages in order?
- Oral
- Anal
- Phallic
- Latent
- Genital
133
In the psychosexual stages, what are the key features of the oral stage?
- Birth to 1 Yo
- Erogenous zone = mouth
- Pleasure from biting and sucking activities (E.g. breastfeeding)
- Fixation caused by weaning of breastfeeding to early or late
- Fixation consequences = biting fingernails, smoking, operating
134
In the psychosexual stages, what are the key features of the Anal stage?
- 1-3 Yo
- Erogenous zone = Anus
- Pleasure from defecting
- Fixation caused by potty training being too lenient or too strict
- If too strict (anally retentive) become overly neat and tidy when older
- If too lenient (anally explulsive) become messy and disorganised when older
135
In the psychosexual stages, what are the key features of the phallic stage?
- 3-6 Yo
- Erogenous zone = genitals
- Girls have the electra complex
- boys have the oedipus complex
- consequences of not resolving the corresponding complex includes sexual deviance, homosexuality and gender identity issues
136
In the psychosexual stages, what are the key features of the Latent stage?
- 6-11 Yo
- No particular erogenous zone
- Sexual pleasure spread across the body
- Calm time for development
- Develop defense mechanisms
- Make friends
137
In the psychosexual stages, what are the key features of the genital stage?
- 12 onwards
- Erogenous zone = genitals
- Libido focused on genitals and stay there for rest of life
- Reach full sexual maturity
- If all stages completed successfully then the child will be mentally healthy and sexually mature
138
What is the oedipus complex?
- Is the complex for boys during the phallic stage
- Libido focused on their mother
- Conflict : father is a rival for mums attention
- Develop castration anxiety
- Resolved on identification with father so develops gender identity and development of superego
139
What is the Electra complex?
- Is the complex for girls during the phallic stage
- Develops an unconscious desire for their father
- Girls begin to see their mother as rivals
- Girls begin to experience penis envy : blame mum for it
- Start to identify with mother
- Replaces desire for penis with the desire for a baby
140
How did Freud support the Oedipus complex?
- With the case study of Little Hans
- He was a 5 Yo boy who developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse on the street
- Freud suggested that his phobias a form of displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was transferred onto horses
- Horses was a symbolic representation of Han's real unconscious fear: the fear of castration
141
What is a strength of the psychodynamic approach?
- Has practical applications (psychoanalysis)
142
What are the weaknesses of the psychodynamic?
- Not scientific (Seen as pseudoscience)
- Methodological flaws (case studies)
- Has a deterministic view (no free will)
143
What are the key assumptions of the humanistic approach?
- Focus on studying unique subjective human experiences (person centred approach)
- People have free will and are in control of their behaviour
- Rejects use of objective and experimental methods
144
Who suggested a 'person centred approach' (humanistic approach)
Carl rogers and Abraham Maslow
145
Who suggested a 'person centred approach' (humanistic approach)
Carl rogers and Abraham Maslow
146
What is a person centred approach? (humanistic)
The idea that each Human is unique and is in control of their own destiny
147
What does humanism focus on?
Subjective human experience and how that shapes the individual
148
What do people need to achieve positive self worth and achieve their potential according to Carl Rogers?
- Unconditional positive regard
- Positive self worth
149
What is unconditional positive regard? (humanistic)
- Where other people accept and love us despite any faults.
150
What are the consequences of unconditional positive regard?
- Feel free to try things out
- Feel able to make mistakes without feeling that love and acceptance will be withdrawn
- essential for the development of producing well-adjusted adults
151
What is positive self worth?
- When a person feels confident and positive about themselves
- Faces challenges and accepts failure
152
What are the two versions of the self? (humanistic)
- Ideal self
- Perceived actual self
153
What is congruence? (humanistic)
- The level of similarity between the ideal self and the actual self
- If we achieve congruence then we have a higher sense of self worth and can achieve personal growth
154
What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
The goals humans desire to achieve
155
What is the order of the hierarchy of needs?
Self-actualisation
Self-esteem
Love and belonging
Safety
Physiological
156
According to Maslow, how many people achieve self-actualisation?
1-2%
157
What is person-centred therapy?
A non directive therapy and the client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions
158
What 3 things should a effective therapist do according to Rogers?
- Genuineness
- Empathy
- Unconditional positive regard
159
What is the aim of person centre therapy?
- Increase a persons self worth
- Reduce the level of incongruence
- Help a person become 'fully functioning'
160
What are the strengths of the humanistic approach?
- Practical applications (person centred therapy)
- Holistic (doesn't reduce complex behaviours)
161
What are the weaknesses of the humanistic approach?
- Seen as pseudoscience (vague methods)
- Culturally bias (only uses western culture norms)
