Relationships

Question 1

Evolutionary explanation of partner preferences

Answer 1

Both males and females choose partners to maximise their chances of reproductive success, individuals with those traits are more likely to survive and reproduce to pass on their gens

Question 2

Human reproductive behaviour

Answer 2

Males have gamete’s (sperm) which can reproduce quickly with little energy expenditure and once they start being produced they don’t stop until death, whilst female eggs are much more plentiful and are released in a limited time frame and require much more energy to produce, this difference is called anisogamy

Question 3

Sexual selection

Answer 3

Intrasexual selection- when an individuals traits enables them to compete with members of the same sex, e.g. strength, anisogamy suggest the best male strategy is to be promiscuous, males engage in mate guarding, and cuckoldry
Intersexual selection- when an individual’s traits increase their attractiveness and thereby induce members of opposite gender to mate with them. Sexy sons hypothesis

Question 4

Evaluation of evolutionary explanation

Answer 4

+ survey of 10,000 adults in 33 countries showing that males prefer younger whilst females prefer more occupational
+Florida state uni- go on a date, go back to apartment, go to bed with them (50%, 69%,75%, 6%, 0%)
-deterministic, no free will in choosing partners
-socially sensitive
-little attempt to explain gay

Question 5

Self disclosure

Answer 5

Revealing of personal info about self to another person, if done in the right way it increases attraction.
As people build trust in their partner, the breadth and depth of self-disclosure will increase, people expect the same amount of self disclosure back as they self disclose (reciprocal self disclosure).
Social penetration theory- suggests that for a relationship to develop partners must keep disclosing further personal information

Question 6

Evaluation of self disclosure (4)

Answer 6

+self disclosure too early is seen as maladjusted and is inappropriate
+ Tv shows like big brother, viewers preferred contestants which self disclosed gradually.
- level of self disclosure is the best predictor of liking and loving rather than the self disclosure given, going against the idea of reciprocal self disclosure
-it is an important factor but there needs to be other factors

Question 7

Physical attractiveness

Answer 7

Affects the attraction in a romantic relationship, males place greater emphasis whilst females tend to look for a more attractive person for a short term but not as much for long term, what is considered to be attractive varies across time and culture
Halo effect- when the general impression of a person is incorrectly formed from physical attractiveness only, often seen as more sociable, optimistic, successful and trustworthy (self fulfilling prophecy)

Question 8

Evaluation of Halo effect

Answer 8

+ physically attractive people rated as more knowledgeable in politics, even after the participants found out that they didnt it still persisted
- males and females participants asked to rate how much they liked an individual based on a photograph, people also completed a MACHO scale and those which scored highly appreciated physical attractiveness

Question 9

Matching hypothesis

Answer 9

People choose romantic partners of similar attractiveness to self. Individuals focus attention on prospective partners of similar attractiveness, narrowing down from available to attainable, inorder to avoid rejection (pragmatic balance between desire for the most attractive partner and a realistic awareness of self0

Question 10

Evaluation of Matching hypothesis

Answer 10

+ real couples each separately assessed for physical attractiveness, there was a positive correlation
- 752 first years of the uni of minnessota attend a dance party, randomly matched to a partner- 4-6 months later asked if they found their partner attractive and would like to go on a date again, showed an appreciation for their partner if they were attractive with no fear of rejection regardless of their own level of attractiveness
-sometimes a physically attractive person forms a relationship with a lesser attractive person, (complex matching)

Question 11

Filter theory

Answer 11

We use filtering to reduce the field of available partners down to a field of desirable partners, when we meet potential partners we engage in three levels of filtering: social demographics, similarity in attitudes, and complementarity

Question 12

Evaluation of filter theory

Answer 12

+ 85% American married in 2008 married someone of their own ethnic group
- 330 couples and found no evidence of similarity in attitudes or complementarity
- critiqued because it suggests that people are attracted to their partners because of similarity in attitudes- longitudinal study of cohabiting partners- emotional convergence
- research on online dating shows a lack of support for filter theory, reduction in social demographics

Question 13

Social exchange theory

Answer 13

Economic theory of romantic relationships focusing on partners exchange of rewards and costs, theory proposes that individuals focus on getting more out of a relationship than putting in, those whom offer greater rewards are seen as more attractive, predicts that relationships that benefit both partners will succeed.
Comparison level- present relationship to previous and other people’s relationships
Comparison level of alternatives- present partner is compared to potential partners

Question 14

Stages of a relationship

Answer 14

Sampling- consider the potential rewards and costs in the new relationship through direct or indirect interactions and compare to other relationships available
Bargaining- partners exchange rewards and costs, negotiate on what is the most profitable
Commitment- relationship is stable and maintained by a predictable exchange of rewards and costs
Institutionalisation- partners have established norms in terms of rewards and costs Institutionalisation

Question 15

Evaluation of social exchange theory

Answer 15

+ 5:1 vs 1:1 (happy vs unhappy marriages)
+integrated couples therapy (66% significant improvements in relationship after receiving the therapy)
+individual differences (people perceive rewards and costs differently)
- we only focus on comparison level once the relationship is already dissatisfying
- violent relationships

Question 16

Equity theory

Answer 16

Economical model of relationships based on the ones of fairness for each partner, emphasises on the need for each partner to experience a balance between their costs and rewards , if people over benefit they will feel guilty, and if they under benefit they will feel angry or sad. The imbalance can be tolerated if both parties accept the situation. Equity doesn’t always mean equality it also means fairness and each person in the relationship must feel that the relationships is fair, has a fair ratio of rewards and costs for each individual

Question 17

Evaluation of equity theory

Answer 17

+female monkeys bad me angry if they were denied of their prize (grape)for playing a game with the researcher, they got so angry that they started hurling food at the experimenter
+1500 couples as part of the US national surveys of families and households, if women were under benefitting a higher risk of divorce, seems very Important to females
- more of an individualistic culture idea rather than collectivist as they might focus on cultural expectations and obligations to continue their relationship rather than equity of rewards and costs
-Free will
-subjective- not possible to assess equity in relationships as many of the costs and benefits are emotional, if we start to measure them it could diminish the quality of love

Question 18

Rusbults investment model

Answer 18

Extension of the social exchange theory, he saw commitment as a key factor in sustaining a relationships, it depends on satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment (acts as a deterrent) . Intrinsic and extrinsic investments

Question 19

Evaluation of Investment model

Answer 19

+ students from Taiwan and Netherlands- found that high commitment levels related to high satisfaction and low quality of alternatives aswell as high investment size
+ explains infidelity and abusive relationships
-difficult to measure the factors, rusbult responded to this by constructing an investment model scale to measure the variables in a reliable and valid way, included self reports and created problems of social desirability bias
-doesnt take into account gender differences

Question 20

Duck’s phase mode of relationship breakdown

Answer 20

Relationship breakdown occurs in four stages:
Intra-psychic phase- one partner is disssatsified with the relationship but they keep it to themself and think about it deeply
Dyadic phase- there is a confrontation between the two partners the problem is raised openly and discussed, both think carefully about investments, there could be a reconciliation if the partner accepts the validity of the partners views and promises to change their behaviour
Social phase- partners disclose their problem to other and so friends and family become aware of the breakdown of the relationship and give advice, for the couple it is time for negotiation and settling of arrangements
Grave dressing phase- each partner comes to terms with the breakdown of the relationship and there is a post relationship rationalization of event involving the constructing of a narrative

Question 21

Evaluation of ducks phase model of relationship breakdown

Answer 21

+ resurrection phase- where the person engages in personal growth and gets prepared for future relationships
+social exchange theory supports it
-role the person has in the breakdown of the relationship is the deciding factor of how it plays out
-gender differences are ignored- males lack of fun/sex and females say lack of emotional support, unhappiness, incompatibility
-overly simplistic

Question 22

Self disclosure in virtual relationships

Answer 22

Hyper personal model- increased self disclose and this means hat virtual relationships become deeper and more intimate more quickly than face to face, and is difficult to sustain the same level of intense self disclosure for a long time, individuals engage in selective self presentation, making the partner want to self disclose more

Reduced cue theory- less open and honest self disclosure, this is because in real life we rely on subtle cues, such as facial expression and intonations which are absent in virtual relationships, according to this model reduction in non verbal communication leads to deindividuation, making online communication more aggressive leading to people disclosing less because they have become victims of aggression

Question 23

Evaluation of hyper personal model

Answer 23

+ in online discussion forums both questions and answers tend to be direct, proving and intimate
- research shows relationships which began online are more durable, due to more open self disclosure early on in the relationship
-it depends on the context, more self disclosure on gaming sites than dating sites, because more chances of meeting a person in face if met on dating website

Question 24

Evaluation of reduced cue theory

Answer 24

-lacks temporal validity as it was formed when social media lacked face to face interaction
-non verbal communication is not absent in virtual relationships it is just in different ways, emojis are used as a substitute for facial expressions

Question 25

Absence of gating in virtual relationships

Answer 25

Virtual relationships are not affected by some of the usual barriers (gate) that constrains relationships formation in real life encounters, factors such as distance, lack of physical attractiveness and social awkwardness are not important online, creating more opportunities for shy or less attractive people to develop romantic relationships, it also means that people can stabilise virtual identities which they could never create face to face e.g. shy person can become outgoing

Question 26

Evaluation of absence of gating in virtual relationships

Answer 26

+reduction of loneliness, 4000 participants studied, 72% of those with internet access were married or had romantic partner, compared to 36% without internet access
+ improvement of self image and increase in the quality of face to face relationships, as people create online identities which are appreciated by others
+ useful for shy people, 207 m/f participants asked to complete a questionnaire scoring their answer in terms of shyness, internet use, and perception do quality of their friendships
-lacks temporal validly as mostly conducted in 1990s and early 2000s, technology is changing rapidly and so is the nature of online dating, so the research has become outdated

Question 27

Para social relationships

Answer 27

one sided relationship with a celebrity where a fan knows everything about the celebrity and feels very close to them but there are no chances of reciprocation.

Entertainment social- most engage in this level, celebrities are seen as a source of entertainment and a topic of light hearted gossiping with friends

Intense personal- private obsession and feeling of personal connection with the celebrity e.g. may see self as soulmates and have an intense interest in the celebrities personal life such as dressing sense

Boderline pathological- spends large sums of money to buy franchise, has obsessive fantasies, show extreme behaviours like stalking, and believe that if the celebrity met them in person their feelings would be reciprocated

Question 28

Absorption addiction model

Answer 28

Parasocial relationships focused on a celebrities make up for the inadequacies in a persons real life and provides them with a sense of identity, people with addictive nature Eshal’s through the levels until their parasocial relationship becomes a goal pre occupation with the celebrities life

Absorption: people with weaker personal identity may become totally preoccupied with the life of a celebrity and begin to identify with them
Addiction: the person seeks even greater involvement so the parasocial relationship becomes all consuming

Question 29

Evaluation of absorption addiction model

Answer 29

+ link between loneliness and engaging in parasocial relationships, e.g. evidence that people develop these relationships as a way of dealing recent loss
+stalkers often have a history of failed sexual relationships at the time of stalking, so stalking is a reaction to social incompetence
+ study between body image in teenagers and parasocial relationships
- these studies are correlational
- better suited to describe the levels than explaining how they develop

Question 30

Attachment theory

Answer 30

Parasocial relationships can be linked to attachment problems in childhood (insecure resistant attachment). Several characteristics can be linked e.g separation protest and protest at the loss of a parasocial relationship. Bowlby noted that failure to attach led to problems later in life e.g. poor internal working model, people with childhood attachment problems form parasocial relationships to et their need for attachment, they do not involve the same fear of rejection as real life relationships do

Question 31

Evaluation of attachment theory

Answer 31

+ insecure resistant more likely to engage in parasocial relationships and insecure avoidant least likely with their favourite TV personality
+ 63% of stalkers experienced loss of primary caregiver in childhood and 50% reported abuse, supporting the idea of disturbed childhood leading to formation of parasocial relationships
+insecure attachment types had a positive attitude towards obsessive behaviours and stalking, pathological attachment types tend to engage in stalking
- rely on the participants recall
-can be positive