Issues and Debates Flashcards
Universality
Conclusions drawn from investigations can be applied to everyone, anywhere, regardless of time, culture or gender. They claim that they discover facts about human beings, which are objective and not influenced by their own values
Gender bias
When psychological research may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience of men or women
Alpha bias
Misrepresentation of behaviour because researchers overestimate the difference between the genders, which often devalue women in comparison to men.
Beta Bias
There is a misrepresentation of behaviour because researchers underestimate the gender difference, often happens when women are not included in research, but it is still assumed that the research findings can be applied to both genders
Androcentrism
Male based view of the world, male behaviour is judged to be normal and desirable, whilst female behaviour are judged to be abnormal
Discussion of gender bias
+ psychology is guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism
+ 1930s- gender biased research revealed that intellectual activity would shrivel women’s ovaries and reduce their chances of conceiving
+ little psychological difference between men and women who both go out to work and share child care and domestic chores
-gender bias can be avoided
-many modern researchers have begun to recognise the effect that their values and assumptions have on their work
Cultural bias
Tendency to judge people based on one’s own cultural assumptions, if a particular behaviour is evaluated solely from the perspective of one culture, then cultural differences in behaviour may be perceived as abnormal or even inferior
Ethnocentrism
Practice of judging other cultures according to the norms of one’s own culture, in extreme cases can lead to believing in superiority of one’s own culture, it can lead to prejudice and discrimination against other ethnic groups by emphasising apparent differences while ignoring individual variation within those groups. Shouldn’t be used for generalisation
Cultural relativism
The idea that behaviour can only be fully understood within the context of the norms and values of the society or culture in which it occurs
Discussion of cultural bias
+ psychologists have distinguished between individualistic and collectivist cultures, however critics argue that it is overly simplistic and inaccurate, researchers found that 14 out of 15 studies comparing the US and Japan showed no evidence of the traditional divide
+ African Cartagena’s immigrants in uk were 7x more likely to be diagnosed with mental illness than general population. Questions the validity of diagnostic tools like dsm and icd when used for individuals from cultures different from those in which these tools r developed
+some mental illnesses exist in certain cultures but not in others, west Africa- brain fag (difficulty concentrating and thinking), China- koro a man who believes that his pen is is retracting into his body
-expressions associated with emotions such as happiness and disgust are consistent across all cultures
Minimise culture bias ( 6 points)
-Avoid extrapolating findings or theories to cultures not represented in their research samples.
> Ensure studies are conducted by researchers familiar with the culture being investigated.
> Conduct cross-cultural research rather than focusing on a single culture.
> Avoid assuming universal norms or standards when designing studies and reporting findings.
> Study individual cultures in depth to understand them within their own context.
•Continuously reflect on their own cultural biases when carrying out research.
Free will
Human beings are essentially self determining and able to choose our thoughts and actions
Determinism
Idea that our traits a and behaviours are beyond our control influenced by internal or external factors over which we have no authority
Hard/Soft determinism
Hard- traits are entirely out of an individuals control
Soft- traits are determined by internal or external forces, but individuals still exercise some control through thought processes and decision making
Types of Hard determinism
Biological
Environmental
Psychic- driven by unconscious motives and desires often rooted in early childhood experiences
Scientific emphasis on causal explanations
A causal explanation for behaviour follows the scientific principle that actions are caused and determined by internal or external factors, implying a cause-and-effect relationship.
Science is inherently deterministic, as it seeks to establish causal relationships by investigating whether changes in the independent variable (cause) lead to changes in the dependent variable (effect). By controlling all other variables, researchers can attribute any observed changes in the dependent variable to the manipulation of the independent variable. Control groups help determine cause and effect, with the ultimate goal being the prediction and control of human behaviour.
Discussion of determinism
+emperical evidence supports determinism, demonstrated that brain activity determining simple choices occurs before we are consciously aware of making a decision
+scientific credibility, determinism is a fundamental principle of the scientific approach, allowing psychology to be regarded as a sciences, it is essential for studying the causes of behaviour and predicting future actions
+practical applications- development of treatments for schizophrenia (having this disorder challenges the concept of free will, as no one chooses to develop such a condition)
+free will has a strong face validity
+psychological well being- people who believe they have control over their own actions feel better (internal locus of control)- adolescents who thought their lives were controlled were more likely to develop depression
Nature
Assumes that genetics is more influential,it is founded in nativist theory- which suggest that knowledge and abilities are innate
Nurture
Assumes that environment and experiences are more influential, founded in the empiricist theory which argues that knowledge derives from learning and experiences, John described the mind as a tabula rasa- a blank slate which is written on with experiences
Interactionism
View that biology and environment work together to determine behaviour
Evaluation of the nature- nurture debate
- extensive research for interactionism, e.g. I@ which has heratibility of 0.5 meaning both genetics and environment play key and equal roles
-diathesis- stress model e.g. finnish adoptees more at risk of schizophrenia when they had both genetic and dysfunctional adoptive family - nature can influence nurture: niche-picking theory suggests that individuals actively select environments that align with their genetic traits, reinforcing their natural tendencies and shaping their development
- nurture can influence nature: London taxi drivers had a larger hippocampus than a control group
-epigenetic- introduces a third factor in the nature-nurture debate: the influence of previous generations’ experiences on our genetic code and DNA.
Lifestyle factors-such as smoking, diet, pollution, and war-leave epigenetic markers on our DNA. These markers regulate gene expression, meaning they can switch genes on or off. These epigenetic changes may even be passed down to future generations.
Reductionism
Concept of explaining behaviour by breaking it down into smaller, more fundamental components. Operates in a hierarchical structure, moving from extreme reductions in the hard sciences to broader explanations in psychology and sociology
Hierarchal structure
Sociological level- cultural and social explanation of behaviour
Psychological level- behavioural and cognitive explanations
Biological level- physiological explanations. Extreme form of reductionism
Types of reductionism (most to least extreme)
Biological- educes behaviour to the activity of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones and genes e.g. schizophrenia. E.g. biological approach
Machine reductionism- treats humans as machine like systems where behaviour can be explained by breaking down into distinct cognitive processes. Cognitive approach uses this by comparing human thinking to computer processing
Environmental reductionism- reduces behaviour to a stimulus response relationship, ignoring internal processes., e.g. attachment. Behaviourist approach
Holism
Highest level of explanation of behaviour, taking into account all aspects of a persons behaviour, it is opposite of of reductionism. The humanistic approach believes that the individual reacts as an organised while, rather than a set of stimulus- response links. What matters is a persons sense of a unified identity and a lack of it leads to mental disorders
Evaluation of reductionism (6)
+viewed as scientific, breaking complex behaviour into smaller constituent parts means that they can be scientifically tested
+biological reductionism has led to the development of biological therapies e.g. drugs
- some psychologists argue that it can leads to errors of understanding concepts, e.g. Ritalin: drugs might help manage symptoms, but they don’t solve the deeper reasons why someone has ADHD
-much of the research which supports environmental reductionism used non human animals: can this rly be generalised to humans (Pavlov and skinner)
-Wolfe studied a women who had phobia of insects he treated her through SD, but found no improvement it turns out it was Cus her husband had a nickname of a insect, it wasn’t a result of classical conditioning but an expression of her Mauritian difficulties
Idiographic approach
Studies individuals in depth, focusing on unique insights rather than generalising across populations, uses qualitative data using methods like case studies and unstructured interviews, psychodynamic (e.g. little hans case) and humanistic approach (emphasises personal experience and views individuals holistically, rather than reducing them to observable traits)
Nomothetic approach
Study of a large representative sample, ideally selected using random sampling in order to collect a large amount of data to support a testable hypothesis, it seems to formulate general laws of behaviour that apply to everyone, it favours quantitate research. Examples include: behaviourist, biological, cognitive approach (does sometimes use case stupid like HM but this is necessary
Evaluation of idiographic approach (5)
+ idiographic approach provides rich insight I’d into individual cases
+ case studies, thematic analysis can be scientific and objective
-lacks scientific rigour
-limited generalisability
-time consuming and costly
Social sensitivity
research where the topic area and/or group being studied can have implications for society or certain groups within society. Potentially, this research could lead to
alicious cod to
change in, or justification for, the way in which these groups are treated or perceived.
What raises ethical implications
- The Research Question: The researcher must consider their research question carefully. Asking questions such as ‘are their racial differences in intelligence’ or ‘is intelligence inherited’ may be damaging to members of a particular group.
- The Methodology Used: The researcher needs to consider the treatment of the participant’s and their right to confidentiality and anonymity. For example, if someone admits to having committed a crime, or having unprotected sex even though they are HIV positive, should the researcher maintain their confidentiality?
- The Institutional Context: The researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who is funding the research. If the research is being funded by a private institution or organisation, why are they funding the research and how do they intend to use the findings?
- Interpretation and Application of Findings: Finally, the researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied to the real-world. Could their results be used to inform government policy?
Evaluation of social sensitive research
+ Psychologists should conduct socially sensitive research because many groups in society have suffered the consequences of being excluded from research, or being misrepresented when they have been included. Our understanding of human behaviour has been lessened by misinterpretations and failure to represent certain groups within research (e.g. people with disabilities, the elderly, women, minority groups etc.). This has ethical implications because these people miss out on the benefits of psychological research.
+ Psychologists deal with ethical issues in socially sensitive research by developing ethical guidelines. However, ethical guidelines protect the immediate needs of participants but do not deal with all of the possible ways in which research may inflict harm on a group of people or section of society. For example, ethical guidelines do not ask psychologists to consider how their research may be used by others (as recommended by Sieber and Stanley, 1998).
+ In order to reduce the likelihood that data is mishandled Psychologists should be energetic in taking responsibility for what happens to their findings. They should be aware that the results of their research may lead to abuse or discrimination.
+ It has been suggested that socially sensitive research should be avoided all together to prevent the potential negative consequences for certain groups of people. However, this would probably leave Psychologists with only unimportant issues to examine. Siber and Stanley’s view is that avoiding controversial topics is also avoiding responsibility. Therefore Psychologists have a duty to conduct research.
- There are always some social consequences from psychological research, but with socially sensitive research there is always the increased potential for a more indirect impact on the group that the participant represents (e.g. addicts, women, the elderly etc.). It is not sufficient to simply safeguard the interests of individual participants.
