Forensic Psychology

Question 1

Offender profiling

Answer 1

Offender profiling- a too; exploded by the police to narrow down the list of likely suspects for a crime, it is based on the idea that the characterises of the offender can be deduced from details of the offence and crime scene, involve analysis of the evidence including witness reports in order to generate a hypothesis about the probable characterises of the offender

Question 2

Top down approach

Answer 2

Templates of organised and disorganised offenders are pre-existing in the mind of the profiler, evidence from the crime scene and other details of the crime are then used to fit the offender into either of the two pre-existing categories

Question 3

Evaluation of top Down approach

Answer 3

-not useful for all sorts of crimes like robbery
-the system was developed on interview of 36 serial killers in the USA. Sample is too small, relies on self report
-overly simplistic, visionary, mission, hedonistic and power serial killers

Question 4

Bottom up approach

Answer 4

Date-driven approach involving use of data from crime scene and victim to build a statistical database, the info is analysed to find relationships between crimes. Investigate psychology- one assumption is interpersonal coherence (idea that the offender behaves consistently at the crime scene and in real life), another assumption is significance of time and place. Forensic awareness describes individuals who have made an attempt to cover their tracks, showing that they may have been a subject of police interrogation previously.

Question 5

Evaluation of bottom up approach

Answer 5

+it is objective, unlike top down which is far more reliant on intuition
+can be applied to wide range of crimes
-the success relies on accurate and detailed record being kept in criminal database
-chemistry students pride a more accurate offender profile than an experienced senior detective
- examples of failure e.g. in 1992, 21 yr old women stabbed 47x and sexually assaulted, in 2008 it was found that Robert was her murder but the ruling claimed him out earlier because he was several inches taller than the profile had claimed he would be

Question 6

Geographical profiling

Answer 6

Study of spatial behaviour in relation to crime and offenders, focusing on the location of the crime and the evidence of the extent of the criminals local knowledge. Three key principles: least effort, distance decay, centre of gravity hypothesis. Crime mapping and anya,is sfo spatial decision making can reveal whether an offender is a marauder or commuter

Question 7

Evaluation of geographical profiling

Answer 7

-not useful for financial crimes or crimes of passion where the offenders behaviour is not necessarily linked to a specific location
+a successful use was identification of John DUffy, the railway rapists- he was a marauder
+120 murder cases involving serial killer in the us studied, location of each body disposal was plotted, and a centre of gravity was identified, effective more noticeable for marauders

Question 8

Historical approach to offending

Answer 8

Italian physician, Lombroso suggested that criminals were ill suited to modern society, he be,imbed that criminals generic throwbacks, a primitive sub-species, who were biologically different from non criminals, they were seen as lacking evolutionary development, their savage and untamed nature means they would find it difficult to adjust to civiliazed society and so turn to crime

Question 9

Atavistic form

Answer 9

Criminal sub-species could be identified by a set of particular physiological characteristics that were linked to particular types of crime, these were biologically determined atavistic (revision to something ancestral), cranial characteristics include strong prominent jaw, high cheekbones, facial asymmetry

Question 10

Evaluation of atavistic form

Answer 10

-racism (eugenic philosophy)
-3000 criminals vs 3000 non criminals, no evidence suggesting that the offenders had particular facial characteristics, he did suggest that there was a difference of intelligence
-he did not compare his criminal sample to a non criminal control
-even if criminals have atavistic features it doesn’t mean that it causes offending- poverty

Question 11

Genetic explanation for offending behaviours

Answer 11

Indicates that future offenders inherit a gene or combination of genes, that disposes them to commit crime, Lange (1930) investigates 13 MZ and 17 dz twins, atleast one of the twins has served time in prison. 10 of the 13 MZ was 2 of 17 in DZ (time in prison), polygenic and candidate genes. MAOA- dopamine and serotonin in the brain- linked to aggressive behaviours and CDH13- substance abuse and attention deficit order. Diathesis stress model- genetics influence criminal behaviour but moderated by the effects of the environmen

Question 12

Neural explanation of offending behaviours

Answer 12

There may be neutral difference in the brains of criminals vs non criminals, much of the evidence comes from individuals with anti-social personality disorder, associated with reduced emotional response and a lack of empathy. Reduced activity in the pre-frontal cortex of the brain (part of the brain that regulates emotional behaviour), research shows that there is 11% reduction in grey matter in the prefrontal cortex of the people with apd compared to a normal group

Question 13

Evaluation of genetic and neural explanation

Answer 13

-concordance rates aren’t always 100%, and can be due to shared learning experiences rather than genetics
-brain scan studies show pathology in brains of criminal psychopaths but can not conclude whether they r genetic or signs of early abuse
-the term offending behaviour is vague, some specific forms of crime may be more biological than others, e.g. physical aggression
-Reductionists
-deterministic: a person with genetic vulnerability shouldn’t be he,d accountable

Question 14

Eysencks theory of criminal personality

Answer 14

Our personality traits are biological in origin and come about through the type of nervous system we inherit from our parents, so all personality types have innate biological basis, offenders have distinctive genetic personality traits, they are high in neuroticism (unstable and unpredictable, due to their inherited nervous system type couldn’t be conditioned so don’t learn from their mistakes), extroversion (thrill seekers and impulsive) , and psychoticism (cold, lack empathy)

Question 15

Evaluation of eysencks theory of criminal personality

Answer 15

-offenders tend to score higher on psychoticism, but not extraversion and neuroticism when compared to non offenders
-overly simplistic, crime is too varied and you can’t compare bulgary to committing murder
-cultural differences
-hard to measure personality on a scale, and people’s personality changes with whom they are

Question 16

Cognitive explanations- moral reasoming

Answer 16

The quality of people’s judgement of right and wrong can be summarised by a stage theory of moral development, offenders are more likely to have their moral reasoning classified at pre-conventional level, meaning that a person is punishment orientated (reasoning based on whether or not they will be punished) and also reward o reinstated, this is immature reasoning which typically lasts from age 3-7, teenagers and adults who still reason this way may commit crime if they can get away with it or gain reward.

Question 17

Evaluation of moral reasoning

Answer 17

+210 female non offenders, 122 male non offenders, and 126 convicted offenders using 11 moral dilemmas such as not taking things which belong to someone else, these offenders showed less mature moral reasoning
-level of moral reasoning may depend on the type of offence. Individuals who committed crimes for financial gain e.g. robbery were more likely to show pre conventional reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crimes like assault with no reasoning evident

Question 18

Cognitive explanation- cognitive distortions

Answer 18

An offenders biased thinking about their offences serves to help them legitimise their behaviour and maintain a positive self image. Hostile attribution bias- offenders misinterpret social cues and justify their actions to themselves by attributing the cause of their offence to their victim.
Minimalistion- when offenders justify their offence to themselves by playing down the significance of their actions

Question 19

Evaluation of cognitive distortions

Answer 19

+cbt, encouraging offenders to face up to what they have done and establish a less distorted view of their actions, correlated with a reduced risk of offending
-hustle atttribution bias can explain reactive agressive behaviour better than pre medicated and planned aggression
-minimalisafion doesn’t rly explain the initial cause of offending
-it explains thinking but can not account for the source of these thoughts, are people born either cognitive distortions or are they the result of trauma
-can not be observed or measure, relies on self report or own inferences to determine what someone is thinking

Question 20

Differential association theory

Answer 20

Proposes that offending is learned through socialisation, pro criminal attitudes occur through association and relationships with other people, from other people we learn our norms and values, even deviant ones- passed on from one generation to another or between peers, everyone’s associations are different (differential association), expectation of those around us act to reinforce our behaviours (criminal) through acceptance. Reinforcement also affect offending behaviour- if rewards for offending are greater than the rewards for not offending

Question 21

Evaluation of differential association theory

Answer 21

• people have free will
• difficult to test scientifically
  -most of the data to study it is correlational
  +it offers a alternative solution to offending behaviour than biological or morality solution
  +it draws attention to dysfunction social circumstances and environment in criminality as it is often overlooked

Question 22

Psychodynamic explanation

Answer 22

Offenders have an ID which is insufficiently controlled because of problems with the development of the superego (lat aspect of personality to form, developed at the end of the phallic state of psychosexual development 3-6 years old, electra and oedipus complex). Weak superego, deviant superego, over harsh superego.

Question 23

Evaluation of inadequate superego

Answer 23

+ nature and nurture
-lacks falsifiability- unconscious- subjective
-according to freud males should have a stronger superego than females and therefore commit less crime, however this is not statistically factual
-no evidence that children raised by same sex parents offend more than the children with different gender parents
-offenders can’t be led accountable
-idea that some criminals have unconscious desire for punishment is wrong, because most offenders go through great lengths to escape punishment

Question 24

Custodial sentencing

Answer 24

Involves convicted offenders spending time in prison such as young offenders institute. Deterrence, general and individual. Incapacitation, retribution, rehabilitation. However research shows several psychological effects associated with serving time in prison, like psychological disorders, institutionalisstion, brutalisation ( 70% of young offenders are recidivism within 2 years) and labelling

Question 25

Evaluation of custodial sentencing

Answer 25

+anger management therapy and such offered, helps the offender return to society
-suicide rates are 15% higher in the prison population, difficult to demonstrate that it’s caused by imprisonment
-crime prevention is more effective since it avoids labelling a person as a criminal
-government ministers often exaggerate the benefits of prison in order to appear touch on crime. In reality little is done to deter

Question 26

Behavioural modification

Answer 26

Uses operant conditioning techniques to encourage positive behaviours, token economy is a form of it, uses positive reinforcement in the form of secondary reinforcers, acquired when a person displays desirable behaviours, e.g. avoiding conflict. These secondary reinforcers can be exchanged for primary reinforcements (intrinsic rewards) e.g. extra phone calls. Negative punishment- non compliance can result in the tokens being withheld, desirable behaviour is identified and broken into smaller steps called increments, selective reinforcement (particular prisoner is rewarded for particular action)

Question 27

Evaluation of behavioural modification

Answer 27

+easy to administer, no requirement for specialist equipment, cost effective and easy to follow
-doesn’t work if staff is not consistent e.g. lack of appropriate training or high staff turnover
-only in controlled environment
-unethical
-deals with surface problem

Question 28

Anger management

Answer 28

Form of cbt, has three stage approach
Cognitive preparation- offender learns to identify the cues for their anger, reflect on past events, they consider if the way their interpreted the situation was rational, the therapist helps to redefine the situation as non threatening
Skill acquisition- offender learns skills to manage their own behaviour in anger provoking situations, can be behavioural (assertiveness training to communicate more clearly) or physiological (relaxation and meditation), aswell as cognitive (positive self talk to encourage calmness)
Application practice- role play opportunity

Question 29

Evaluation of anger management

Answer 29

+multidisciplinary acknowledging that offending is a complex behaviour and therefore requires many approaches
+tries to get to the root cause of offending behaviour
-assumption anger causes offending may be wrong
-expensive as the specialist needs to be trained
-based on the commitment of the participant and willingness to participate

Question 30

Restorative justice

Answer 30

Process of managed collaboration between offender and victim based on the principle of healing and empowerments, a trained mediator facilitates a meeting between the two, victim is given the opportunity to confront the offender and explain the effects the crime has had on them. Active process, which is isn’t restricted to a courtroom and focus on a positive outcomes of both parties as well as focuses on acceptance of responsibility and positive change for offenders. In some cases the offenders make financial restitutions for physical and emotional damage they have caused

Question 31

Evaluation of restorative justice

Answer 31

+ saves the criminal justice system £8 by reducing recidivism and the spending is £1
-relies on offender showing remorse
-victims may have ulterior motives
-doesn’t work for domestic abuse
-unpopular with the general public, so the politicians are unwilling to support it