Approaches Flashcards
Wilhelm Wundt
First person to call himself a psychologist, known as the father of psychology, he founded the institute of experimental psychology, he published one of the first books on psychology to stabilise the subject as an independent branch of science. He opened the first experimental lab in Leipzig Germany, helping to shape psychology as a science. The lab was designed to aid the scientific study of psychological inquiry using controlled conditions that could facilitate replication of results to study the structure of sensation and perceptions. He intended to focus on the psychological processes of perception and structuralism- theory of consciousness, involved the use of introspections, self reports of sensations, views, feelings and emotions, he used scarification methods, it was recorded under strictly controlled conditions in a lab using the same stimuli, the same reaction times and the same instructions give to the participants, they had to focus on present experiences, making the research highly reliable
Introspection
“The first systematic and experimental attempt to study the mind/ mental processes by breaking down conscious awareness into basic structures of reflections, thoughts, images and sensations.”
Evaluation of introspection and the emergence of psychology as a science (8)
1) Watson criticised Wundt’s idea of introspection and whether psychology was emerging as a science.
Introspection produces subjective data which varies from one individual to the next, and therefore introspection is not objective or very reliable. Wundt’s methods are very subjective compared to the objectivity of scientific processes. There are many difficulties when trying to objectively study unobservable matter. (-)
2)
Introspection has been criticised because it is not very scientific or accurate. Research conducted by Wilson claims that psychologists have little knowledge about some behaviour and attitudes that might exist outside of conscious awareness (e.g. racism).
Introspection would not be able to uncover and help us understand
these thought processes (-)
3) Introspection can be criticised because it fails to explain HOW the mind works and the processes involved in hinking about a particular topic/doing an activity. Psychologists cannot see how thoughts are generated and introspection cannot be properly observed (so might not be very scientific) (-)
4) Introspection has the advantage that it has helped to develop other approaches in psychology (such as behaviourism via Watson). The focus on mental processes through introspection can be seen as a forerunner to develop the cognitive approach by Beck and Ellis (+)
5)
Introspection has the advantage of being extremely scientific. It shares the same qualities as the scientific subjects of Chemistry, Biology and Physics, for instance all of these subjects make predictions about form hypotheses. There is a high level of control of variables as all of these subjects including Psychology study behaviour in a laboratory setting (+)
6) A disadvantage of Wundt’s work is that there have been greater contributions to the development of psychology by early behaviourists, e.g. Pavlov, than by Wundt. Pavlov for example produced reliable findings with explanatory principles (classical conditioning) that were generalizable, which is more in line with the scientific approach (-)
7) Introspection has the advantage that it is still used today in areas of therapy that study emotional states. For instance introspection can be used in cognitive therapy in order to try to get patients to alter their negative thinking and turn them into positive thoughts. Therefore introspection can still be applied to contemporary therapy used in modern society (+)
8)
Wundt supports and advocates the idea of reductionism. He believed consciousness could be broken down (or reduced) to its basic elements without sacrificing any of the properties of the whole. He studied internal mental processes by deconstructing them down into measurable units such as perception, senses and experiences. (+)
Behavioural approach
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observed in terms of learning
Classical conditioning
“This is learning by association. A neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus. The neutral stimulus will eventually produce the same response that was produced by the unconditioned response alone”
Behavioural approach assumptions
All behaviour is learned and involves the same process for animals and humans
Watson rejected introspection because it was too vague and difficult to measure
Behaviourism maintains more control and objectivity within research and relies on laboratory experiments
Pavlov and the salivating dogs
Method of learning involves building up an association between two different stimuli so that learning can take place, dogs can be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell, if the sound of the bell is repeatedly presented at the same time as the food, both of these stimuli would then be paired together to cause a learning response so that the dog would learn to associate the sound of the bell with food and will then salivate, at the end of the conditioning process the dog will earn to salivate when they hear the sound of the bell alone (temporal contiguity)
-generalisation, discrimination, extinction
Evaluation of classical conditioning (8)
There is research evidence to support the idea of classical conditioning being able to explain the development of learning and phobias. Evidence comes from Pavlov and his research on dogs, as well as the Little Albert study by Watson and Rayner. However, we must be cautious when using the research findings from Little Albert because the study was conducted in a laboratory setting and we might find that different results might be gained from a different setting.
Therefore the findings might be quite weak and might lack ecological validity when considering how important and effective classical conditioning actually is (+)(-)
2)
Classical conditioning is successful in explaining how learning can occur in animals and young children. However classical conditioning might not be very strong in explaining how adults learn new behaviours. Therefore classical conditioning is limited to only explaining learning in young children and animals only (-)
[Answer]
3)
The psychologist Menzies criticises the behavioural model, especially the idea of classical conditioning. He studied people that had a phobia of water (hydrophobia), and he found that only 2% of his sample had encountered a negative experience with water (due to dassical conditioning and learning). Therefore, 98% of his sample had a phobia of water but had never had a negative experience involving water, which means that they had not learnt to become frightened of water. Therefore; how did these people get their phobia of water if they had not learnt it? Other findings include 50% of people who have a dog phobia have never had a bad experience involving a dog, so therefore learning cannot be a factor in causing the development of the phobia (-)
4)
A strength of the behavioural model is that it is a model that can be easily tested and measured in a scientific way by using observations in a laboratory. The behavioural model relies on observing behaviour that can be directly seen and measured in a highly controlled setting. This helps aid objectivity and replication (+) |
5)
The behaviourial model can be criticised because it views humans and animals as passive recipients who have machine like responses to stimuli in the environment. Animals and humans can easily learn new behaviours unquestionably and apparently have little or no conscious thought at all. This minimises their free will. (-)
6)
A strength of Pavlov’s research is that it has helped apply dassical conditioning to treatments of psychological disorders.
For example, classical conditioning has helped form treatments such as flooding and systematic desensitisation which are based on the components of dassical conditioning and association (+)
7)
The behavioural model would be criticised by the biological approach in Psychology. The behavioural model would ignore the role of genes, hormones, evolution and neural mechanisms that are responsible for behaviour. There is very strong research evidence from a range of psychologists that behaviour is caused and determined by genes, a key example is schizophrenia, whereby genetics have been identified as the main cause of the illness (this has been identified by gene mapping). The biological approach would criticise the behavioural approach and state how it is very unlikely that someone could learn to be schizophrenic (via classical conditioning). Therefore other models in psychology should also be considered when looking at how behaviours develop (-)
8) A disadvantage of classical conditioning is that is can be viewed as being deterministic because it ignores the role of free will in people’s behavioural responses. Classical conditioning anticipates an individual will respond to a conditioned stimulus with no variation, which is not accurate. People are not passive states and they do have some control over how they might respond to an association between two stimuli. This can lead to explanations for behaviour that are incomplete and inconsistent. (-)
Operant conditioning
Method of learning focused on behaviour producing consequences such as punishment, positive or negative reinforcement
Skinner box
A cage which has loud speaker, lights, a level, a door and a floor which could be electrified. One hungry rat at a time would be placed in the box and allowed to freely run around
Positive reinforcement
The rat might accidentally press the level and the rat would be rewarded by a food pellet which would drop into the Skinner box
Negative reinforcement
That rat could also learn that by pressing the lever they could avoid something unpleasant, rat could learn that by pressing lever they could prevent being electrocuted
Skinner box
Extinction means that when the rat presses the lever but no longer receives a reward (food pellet); the rat soon learns that pressing the lever leads to no rewards. The rat will therefore stop pressing the lever as it has learnt that it leads to no more rewards.
• Spontaneous recovery: Following extinction (see above), if the rat presses the lever and does then suddenly receive a food pellet, the rat will very quickly learn that pressing the lever results in a food pellet.
The rat will learn this link very quickly and “spontaneously recover” what he had previously learnt
• Schedules of reinforcement: This means that there are different methods of reinforcement that might occur: some examples include:
• A) Continuous reinforcement: Every time the rat presses the lever they will always receive a food pellet
B) Fixed Interval: The rat presses the lever and only receives a food pellet during a fixed time only, e.g. every 30 seconds
• C) Fixed ratio: The rat must press the lever for a fixed number of times and then it will receive the food pellet
Evaluation of operant conditioning
• There is research evidence to support the idea of operant conditioning in the real world. Token economy is used in institutions such as prisons and hospitals and acts as a form of behaviour modification. Token economy works by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens which can be exchanged for privileges.
Research conducted by Paul and Lentz used token economy to treat patients who had schizophrenia, and it was found that their behaviour became more appropriate. (+)
Skinner’s research involving the Skinner box can be criticised. Skinner ignores the concept of free will. He suggests that past experiences involving operant conditioning will affect future behaviour, and people/animals have no control over their actions or the behaviours they show. This is a deterministic view of behaviour which does not account for free will and the fact that a human/animal has a choice over how they behave. (-)
3) A strength of the research conducted by Skinner using the Skinner box is that he relied on the experimental method. He used highly controlled conditions to discover the relationship between variables so that he could establish a cause and effect relationship, e.g. pressing the lever causes the rat to learn food will arrive (reward) (+)
4) The research by Skinner is on the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate. This would state that learning occurs due to environmental factors and external stimuli rather than due to nature and biology. Therefore by
manufating factors in the environment this can have an effect on learning and behaviour, and is supported
5) A problem of operant conditioning is that it is rooted in the behaviourist approach in Psychology and would ignore the biological approach. The biological approach would argue against the behavioural approach and would state that behaviour cannot be learnt, but instead behaviour is heavily influenced by the role of genes, hormones and biochemical/neural mechanisms. Therefore other approaches in psychology must also be considered when examining the influences upon behaviour, and operant conditioning/learning cannot explain all behaviours e.g. do people learn how to be aggressive, or could it be caused by genes and hormones? (testosterone) (-)
6) A disadvantage of operant conditioning it that its effectiveness in shaping learning and behaviour has been discussed compared to social learning theory and the cognitive approach. Operant conditioning might not be as successful as learning from others (social learning) or as successful as the internal mental processes that go into learning (cognitive approach) (-)
Social learning theory
Explains how behaviours can be learned .
- Modelling: it requires a person to carry out they behaviour so that the observe can learn it (can be live or symbolic)
- Imitation: children learn behaviours through imitating behaviours displayed by the model, this is quicker than using classical or operant conditioning. Characteristics of the model, observers perceived ability to perform the behaviour shown, observed consequences of behaviour.
- Identification: the extent to which the observer relates to the model and feels that he is similar to them so that they could experience the same outcome as the model, the person would aim to be like the model as much as they could, children are likely to identify with a model if the same sex as themselves
- Vicarious reinforcement: individuals do not need to experience rewards of punishment directly in-order to learn new behaviours, they can observe the consequences by observing the model
Meditational processes
Social learning places great emphasis on this, the learning must form a mental representation of the behaviour being displayed by the model and the likely consequences of the behaviour
Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation
Evaluation of social learning theory (6)
Akers (1998) found that criminals seem to engage in more criminal behaviour when they are exposed to a model that they can highly identify with e.g. same gender/age range. (+)
2)
A strength of Social learning theory is that it is more effective when the model is very similar to the observer (rather than dissimilar). If the observer is similar to the model, it makes it easier for the observer to visualise themselves in the place of the model and feel like they are having the same experience. Fox (2009) found evidence to suggest that when an observer played a computer game that had a model that looked very similar to themselves, they were more likely to engage in the same behaviours as the model (+)
3) Social learning theory can be criticised because it ignores other potential influences on behaviour. For example Social learning theory would ignore the role of neurochemistry which could cause people to behave in certain ways. For example Bandura found in his experiment that boys were more aggressive than girls, regardless of the experimental situation they were in and this was due to the hormone testosterone making boys more aggressive. (-)
4) An advantage of Social learning theory is that it is an evidence-based approach with a great deal of supporting research evidence. For example, Bandura demonstrates that children are able to learn behaviour through observing the behaviour of an adult (see the bobo doll experiment below) (+)
5) The Social learning theory can be criticised because it sees behaviour as being determined by the environment (environmental determinism) rather than being caused by other factors such as genetics or innate behaviour. This can pose a criticism because genetics is a very big factor that can determine human behaviour, and the social learning theory ignores this factor. (-)
6) Social learning theory focuses on the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate and looks at how the environment and role models shape behaviours. The theory does not look towards nature and how genes could influence behaviour overall, it is all about the environment (-/+)
Bandura (1961)
36 male and female children between 3-7 years of age, the children had to watch the model act aggressively or non aggressive against the bobo doll, in the experimental conditions the model displayed aggression such as striking the bobo doll with a mallet and shouting POW! After the children observed aggressive acts, they were made to feel frustrated, shown attractive toys but not allowed to play with them. Then one by one the children were taken to a room which had some toys including bobo dolls, thy were then observed for 20 minutes. 33% of children who observed and heard verbal aggression repeated what they saw and heard, however 0% of children in non aggressive followed. Boys were more aggressive than girls and aggression was greatest when the model was the same gender as themselves observer
Bandura evaluation
-conducted in a lab
-lacks ecological validity
-the use of bobo dolls has been criticised
-we do not know if the actions continued throughout- only short term
-ethical issues
-real life implications: like looking out for shows ur children are watching
Cognitive approach- key assumptions
-behaviour is influenced by thoughts, both conscious and unconscious
-internal mental processes e.g. memory, perception can be studied
-mental processes can involve schema
-theoretical and computer models can be used
-it is possible to make inferences about cognitive processes
-neural mechanisms can be combined with cognitive processes (cognitive neuroscience)
Role of models
Models can be used to provide testable theories about mental processing and these can be studied scientifically and inferences made. Making inferences means going beyond the immediate evidence to make assumptions about mental processes that can’t be directly observed. Theoretical models in cognitive psychology (such as msms) are simplified representations based on current research evidence, often pictorial in nature and represented by boxes and arrows to c show cause and effect in mental processes, they are often incomplete and are frequently updated mental processes are a form of information processing which can be compared to that of a computer, cognitive psychologists have made use of computer models to explain mental processes
Role of schemas
Schemas are mental representations of experience, knowledge and understanding, often help organise and interpret info in the brain. Schemas for specific events are based on expectations of how to behave in different situations or in different roles, they are useful because they help us predict what twill happen in our world based on our previous experiences, they also help us process vast amount of info rapidly, and also prevent us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimulus. (Event/role schemas)
However schemas can distort our interpretation of sensory info, they can also lead to perceptual errors or inaccurate memory, and can cause biased recall as we see what we expect. Negative or faulty schemas may have negative impact on mental health
Evaluation of cognitive approach
1) A strength of the cognitive approach is that it has many applications in different areas of Psychology. For example social cognitions can help psychologists understand how to form impressions of other people and how we might form cognitive errors and biases. Cognitive Psychology might also explain the development of faulty negative thinking which can aid our understanding of abnormal psychology e.g. phobias (+)
AF
2) A strength of the cognitive approach is that it emphasises scientific methods such as laboratory experiments when collecting data. This means that high levels of control can be exercised in these settings and cause and effect relationships can be identified between the independent and dependent variables. This also makes the research more
objective and scientific. (+)
3) A criticism of the cognitive approach is that it focuses heavily on internal mental processes which are often ignored by other models in Psychology. For instance the biological approach would focus on genetics, biochemistry and neuroanatomy as factors that could cause behaviour to occur. The cognitive model would focus solely on thoughts and internal mental processes, and the biological model would ignore these factors (-)
4) The cognitive approach can be criticised it does not give a full picture about what is really going on inside the working mind/brain. Psychologists and scientists still need to make inferences about cognitive processing which might be based on limited information available from research/experiments. It is questionable whether psychologists can really
understand and explain thinking by using inference alone. (-)
6) A criticism of the cognitive approach is the idea of Soft determinism. This is the idea behaviour is constrained by the environment or biology. The cognitive approach views behaviour as being determined by internal cognitive factors but would ignore biology or the environment. However, biology might have a big impact upon cognitive thinking, for example there is a great deal of evidence that depression and negative thinking might be genetic (therefore Biology does affect
cognition to an extent) (-)
Bartlett- study of the role of schemas
The study was conducted in a laboratory
• English participants were asked to read a Native American folk tale called, “The war of the Ghosts” which was an unfamiliar and strange story because it came from a very different culture. It had an unfamiliar and unusual story structure compared to an English story
• Participants had to read the story, and then after different lengths of time they had to recall the story as accurately as possible (to test their schemas and recall)
• The results of the study showed that all English participants changed the story to fit their own schema. They reconstructed the story in order to recall it better.
• The details of the story became more “English” and contained elements of the English culture.
Details of “ghosts” were left out in the recall
The order of the story was changed to be more “logical”
• Changes were made when recalling the story, for example, “canoes” were changed to “cars” and “bows” and arrows changed to “guns”.
• As more time passed between reading the story and recalling the details, it was found that participants seemed to remember less information.
• The conclusion to this study is that people use their own schemas to help them interpret and remember information, and this is dependent upon culture to an extent.
• Schemas are important when studying internal mental processes.
Evaluation of Bartlett
The study was conducted in a laboratory setting which is an advantage. This is because the setting and the IV can be highly controlled in order to accurately measure schemas and internal cognitive processes. The results are likely to be highly reliable if the study was to be repeated again (+)
2)
The study has the strength of confirming how important schema theory is when investigating internal mental cognitive processes. It seems that people will recall information in a way that fits in with their schema. This could have implications when asking people to recall information for eye witness testimony and court proceedings. People might distort their memories according to their schemas, but now psychologists are aware of this issue, they can ensure this does not happen (+)
3)
The study can be criticised because the participants might have affected by demand characteristics. They might have guessed the aim of the study and might have altered their responses accordingly which might mean that the study and the results are not very valid. This might lead psychologist to question the results in relation to schemas and internal cognitive processes (-)
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4) The study can be criticised because of the biased sample that was used. The study only used English participants which cannot be generalised to other samples from around the world. Therefore the results are quite narrow and biased and do not give a holistic view of different cultures and how their schemas and internal cognitive processes might operate.
Cognitive neuroscience
Cognitive and biological processes can be integrated, leading to a discipline known as cognitive neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of brain structures, mechanisms, processes and chemistry that are responsible for thought processes. It aims to explore the neurobiological basis of thought processes and disorders.
Cognitive neuroscience has emerged with improvements in technology such as PET and fMRI. They have been used to locate different types of memory in different areas of the brain, for instance episodic memories are in the hippocampus, semantic memories are in the temporal lobe, and procedural memories are in the cerebellum. This has led to more effective treatments for memory disorders.
Evaluation of cognitive neuroscience
+Cognitive Neuroscience is more scientific and objective when conducting research studies than the cognitive approach.
+ Cognitive neuroscience takes account of both nature and nurture. It has demonstrated the brain’s plasticity throughout life supporting the role of life
experience in shaping the brain. This also demonstrates that biology is not destiny and so is a form of soft determinism.
+ Cognitive neuroscience has provided neurobiological basis of certain psychological disorders (e.g. role of the parahippocampal gyrus in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder) resulting in the development of new therapeutics and removing blame and stigma from the patient.
+ Cognitive Neuroscience can be used for early identification of cognitive problems prior to observable behaviour. This has provided potential for early intervention
- There have been some potentially unethical uses of cognitive neuroscience.
For example, the controversial use of mind mapping for lie detection in courts.
Maguire- Taxi drivers
Maguire wanted to investigate if brain anatomy was predetermined, or whether the brain is susceptible to plastic changes, in response to environmental stimulation, (driving a taxi)
• Taxi drivers undergo extensive training, known as ‘The Knowledge’ and therefore make an ideal for sample for the study of spatial navigation.
• The aim was to examine whether structural changes could be detected in the brain of people with extensive experience of spatial navigation.
• 32 healthy males (average age of 44) were investigated and split into two groups
• One group were 16 licensed male London taxi drivers (worked in the job for at least 18 months) and the second group were 16 males in a control group who had never driven taxis.
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MRI scans of their brain were taken and analysed.
The results from the MRI scans showed that the right posterior hippocampus in the brain of the taxi drivers’ was larger than the control group; and this was related to the length of time the taxi driver had been in the job.
The longer they had been a taxi driver, the larger the right posterior hippocampus. This part of the brain is responsible for storing visual representations of the environment and this links to the fact that taxi drivers have to navigate around the streets of London.
This demand in knowledge resulted in a physical change in the brain which was identified by the MRI scan.
: A positive correlation was found between the amount of time spent as a taxi driver and volume in the richt posterior hippocampus.
Evaluation of maguire
An advantage of the study by Maquire is that is supports the key aspects of cognitive neuroscience which combines both cognitive and biological factors to help explain internal thought processes. The study uses MRI brain scanning to investigate the hippocampus area of the brain. The study also emphasises how the brain is “like a muscle” and the more an area of the brain is used or exercised, the larger it becomes (+)
AF
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2) A disadvantage of the research study is that it only investigated males which means the study lacks ecological validity and the results cannot be generalised to females. Individual differences is an important factor to consider when examining the brain and cognitive functions, and every brain is different. (-)
3)
There is research evidence to support the idea that the right posterior hippocampus is involved in spatial awareness.
Previous rodent and monkey studies have found the (posterior) hippocampus to be involved in spatial navigation. Such an involvement may also be true for the posterior part of the hippocampus in birds and rats. Therefore it seems that the ght posterior hippocampus is responsible for spatial awareness in humans and animals, and the functionality of the bra similar across many species
Biological approach- key assumptions
• Behaviour has evolved through evolutionary adaptation.
• The genes an individual possesses influence their behaviour.
• The biological examination of animals can provide useful information about human behaviour.
• Biological structures and neurochemistry control and influence our reactions to the environment.
Evolution- Charles Darwin
According to Charles Darwin, our behaviour has adapted and changed over time through natural selection. This is where profitable behaviours are selected in mates and therefore reproduced. Over time, advantageous behaviours will continue which will continually increase our ability to survive.
Influence of genetics
Heredity refers to the idea that characteristics are ‘passed on’ from one generation to the next through our genetics. These characteristics can be physical (e.g. height and hair colour) or psychological (e.g. intelligence and predisposition to mental illness). To examine the extent to which genes influence behaviour, work is often carried out on pairs of twins. These studies often involve comparing the likelihood of a behaviour/disorder occurring in identical twins (who are 100% genetically similar) to the likelihood of the behaviour/disorder occurring among non-identical twins (who are 50% genetically similar). If the MZ twins show a higher concordance rate (shared behaviour) then there is argued to be a genetic component.
It is very rare, however, that the concordance rate for MZ twins is 100%. This suggests that, although there may be a genetic influence, some behaviours could be a mix of both genetics and environment:
• Genotype - refers to the genes an individual possesses i.e. an individual’s genetic make-up.
• Phenotype - refers to the observable traits/characteristics shown by an individual that are due to the combined effect of genes and environment.
Biological structures
The Nervous System is divided into:
• The Central Nervous System: This comprises of the brain and spinal cord which act as the centre from which the individual is controlled e.g. through the cognitive processing of the brain.
• The Peripheral Nervous System: This comprises of the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system comprises the muscles attached to the skeleton and is therefore pivotal for movement. The autonomic nervous system oversees bodily organs and is involved in the fight or flight response.
The endocrine system maintains levels of hormones in the blood that are released by glands. The most important gland is the pituitary gland which is located in the brain. This is sometimes called the master gland because it instructs the other glands in the body to secrete hormones when necessary.
Neurochemistry
Neurotransmitters - Neurons (cells in the nervous system) communicate with each other by releasing chemicals called neurotransmitters. Biological psychologists argue that neurotransmitter levels can affect the behaviour of an individual (e.g. low serotonin levels have been linked to depression).
Hormones - Hormones are released as part of the endocrine system through glands. Biological psychologists argue that hormone levels in the system can affect the behaviour of an individual (e.g. high testosterone levels have been linked to aggressive behaviour).
Evaluation of the biological approach
The biological approach uses the scientific method, particularly the use of the experimental method, as its main source of investigation. Experimental studies take place in highly controlled environments so that other researchers are able to replicate research studies under the same experimental conditions, thus adding to the reliability of the research.
+ The biological approach has practical applications. For example, knowledge about the neurochemical imbalance in depression (low serotonin) has led to the development of drug treatments (SSRIs), which correct this imbalance.
+ If people know they have a genetic predisposition for a mental disorder, such as schizophrenia, this gives them an opportunity to avoid environmental tuations likely to trigger this predisposition or to develop coping skills the ould protect them from its potential influence
- The biological approach is biologically reductionist. Reductionism is the belief that complex human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into its smallest component parts, such as the action of genes, neurotransmitters and hormones. Critics argue that we cannot fully understand behaviour without taking account of all the different factors which influence it. These include cognitive, emotional and cultural factors, all of which have a significant influence on behaviour.
- Recent studies suggesting a genetic basis for criminal behaviour has led to concerns about how this information could be used. It could lead to genetic screening of populations to identify genetic susceptibilities and subsequent discrimination against those with a genetic predisposition to crime.
Evaluation of neurochemistry
1) A negative point of neurochemistry is that cause and effect needs to be established. Can we be sure that high/low levels of neurotransmitters actually cause a change in behaviour, e.g. low levels of serotonin cause depression? (-)
2) Neurotransmitters can be measured objectively and scientifically which is a strength. For instance dopamine can be measured by inserting a needle in the spine and extracting spinal plasma fluid. This means we can obtain objective and scientific measurements (+)
3) A strength of neurotransmitters is that if we know that a lack/excess of a particular neurotransmitter has an effect on behaviour e.g. low levels of serotonin cause depression, then we can look for relevant treatments that can help solve the issue. For instance giving depressed people SSRI drugs that increase serotonin (+)
4)
Neurotransmitters can be viewed as reductionist which can be a disadvantage. To say that complex human behaviour can be affected by neurotransmitters alone is too simplistic and inaccurate, for instance is depression really just caused by low serotonin levels? (-)
5)
The idea that neurotransmitters can have an effect on behaviour can be criticised by the cognitive approach.
The cognitive approach would state that behaviour is caused by thought patterns and thinking rather than neurochemistry or chemicals, for instance depression could be caused by negative thinking according to the cognitive approach rather than by low levels of serotonin (biological approach) (-)
Dopamine hypothesis
Schizophrenic patients’ tend to have high levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine in their brain
• When drugs such as phenothiazines are given to patients’ that block dopamine in the brain; the positive symptoms of schizophrenia seem to reduce (hallucinations and delusions)
• A drug called L-Dopa increases dopamine levels in the brain.
• This drug can induce symptoms of schizophrenia, and it has been tested on healthy non psychotic people.
• Drugs such as LSD and amphetamines (dopamine agonist) also increase dopamine levels in the brain and can induce schizophrenic symptoms.
• Dopamine metabolism in schizophrenic patients’ seems to be abnormal,
Psychodynamic approach- key assumptions
The driving force behind our behaviour is the unconscious mind
Instincts and drives motivate our behaviour
Early childhood is pivotal in making us the person we are
The role of the unconscious
Freud believed that there are 3 levels to this Monday, the unconscious mind contains thoughts, feelings and memories that the person is aware of, whilst the pre conscious mind contains thoughts, feelings and memories that the person could access if they wanted to. He argued that the largest apex of the mind is inaccessible (unconscious mind) . Freud believed that most of our everyday actions and behaviours are not controlled consciously but are the product of the unconscious mind, which reveals itself in slips of the tongue (Freudian slips), in creativity and in neurotic symptoms.
• The unconscious is the driving/motivating force behind our behaviour/personality
• The unconscious protects the conscious self from anxiety/fear/trauma/conflict.
• Traumatic (repressed) memories drive our behaviour
• The underlying unconscious drive is sexual
• If a conflict is experienced during the development through the psychosexual stages, e.g. oral, anal, phallic, latent, genital, a fixation (that resides in their unconscious mind) can affect an adult’s personality.
The mind actively prevent traumatic thoughts in the mind reaching the conscious mind because it would cause anxiety, during hypnosis the psychoanalyst tries to access the unconscious mind of the patient through free association and dream interpretation
Structure of the personality
Personality has a tripartite structure, experience and conflicts in childhood shape the development of the parts of the personality, affecting how a person behaves.
Id: birth to 18 months of age, it is in the unconscious mind, it focuses on the self, it is irrational and emotional, it deals with feelings and needs also seeks pleasure, operating on the pleasure principle
The ego: from between 18 months to 3 years of age, it is in the conscious mind, it is rational and obtains a balance between the I’d and the super go, operating on the reality principle
Superego: 3 to 6 years of age, it is in the unconscious mind, acting as a moral guide based on parental and societal values, operating on the morality principle
Defence mechanisms
Stop an individual from becoming consciously aware of any unpleasant thoughts, feelings or memories that they may be experiencing:
Repression, denial, displacement
Repression
This is the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts. These repressed thoughts continue to influence behaviour.
For example, a person who is abused as a child may not remember the abuse but could still have trouble forming adult relationships.
Denial
This is the refusal to accept reality to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that may be associated with a traumatic situation. For example, an alcoholic may deny that they have a drinking problem.
Displacement
This occurs when the focus of a strong emotion (e.g. anger) is expressed on an alternative person or object. For example, a student who has been given a detention by their teacher might kick their locker or shout at their friends
Psychosexual stages
Freud believed that personality developed through a sequence of five stages.
These are referred to as psychosexual stages to emphasise that the most important driving force in development is the need to express sexual energy (libido).
• At each stage this energy is expressed in different ways and through different parts of the body.
• Freud believed that parents played an important role in a child’s progression through the psychosexual stages.
• If the child as allowed to experience too much or too little gratification at any of the stages, a process called fixation could occur in which the child’s later adult personality could show permanent signs reflecting the stage at which fixation occurred.
Oral (0-1 years)
Focus of pleasure is the mouth and the control of sucking, tasting and biting.
Trusting and able to give/receive affection.
Oral fixation - smoking, biting nails, sarcastic and critical.
Anal (1-3 years)
Focus of pleasure is the anus. The child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces.
Can deal with authority figures.
Anal retentive personality - perfectionist and obsessive.
Anal expulsive personality - thoughtless and messy.
Phallic (3-5 years)
Focus of pleasure is the genital area. Child experiences the Oedipus or Electra complex.
Adopts the behaviours/traits of the same sex.
Narcissistic, reckless and possibly homosexual.
Latent (6-12 years)
Focus is on the mastery of the world and social relationships. Earlier conflicts are repressed/resolved and early years are forgotten
Genital (12+ years)
Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty.
Individual is a well-adjusted adult.
Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.
Electra/ Oedipus complex
Oedipus complex:
During the phallic stage, boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a hatred for their rival in love - their father. Fearing that their father will castrate them (castration anxiety), boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father. In doing so, they internalise his gender role and moral values (his superego).
Electra complex:
During the phallic stage, girls experience penis envy and so desire their father. They also believe they have been castrated and blame their mother for this. Over time, girls give up their desire for their father and replace this with a
desire for a baby. In turn, they identify with their mother and internalise her gender role and moral values (her superego).
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach
1) A strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it led to the development of psychoanalysis - a therapy for the treatment of anxiety disorders. This laid the foundation for psychotherapy in modern psychiatry.
(+)
2) The case study of Little Hans supports the Oedipus complex proposed by Sigmund Freud. However, the concept could only be inferred from behaviour or reported thoughts/experiences (e.g. through dream analysis) where subjective interpretation is open to investigator bias. (+)
3) The key concepts of the psychodynamic approach such as the unconscious mind and defence mechanisms lack falsifiability because they are unconscious processes and therefore difficult to test. They cannot be seen, measured or observed and are not very scientific or objective (-)
4) An advantage of the psychodynamic approach is the use of evidence to support the effectiveness of psychotherapy. E.g. De Maat et al examined the effectiveness of long-term psychoanalytic psychotherapy for patients with a range of DSM diagnoses. There was supporting evidence for improvements in psychological symptoms due to the use of psychotherapy (+)
5)
Research conducted by the psychologist Caspi would support Freud’s work. Caspi found that the role of childhood personality has an impact later on in life. Children who had an inhibited personality at age 3 tended to become depressed adults by the age of 21. Children who were impulsive and lacked control at age 3, tended to develop anti-social personality disorder by age 21. (+)
6)
The psychodynamic model has received a great deal of praise in Psychology. It was the first systematic model that focused on psychological factors as a cause of abnormality as well as psychological treatments (such as psychodynamic therapy). The psychodynamic model helped the behavioural and cognitive model develop. (+)
7)
The psychodynamic model can be criticised. Freud tends to focus on childhood traumas and problems that a patient might have had, and this is seen as the cause of abnormality. Freud would ignore any current problems that the patient is having, and would solely focus on childhood alone. (-)
Humanistic approach- key assumptions
People have free will to make ther own decisions in life
Psychology should study the whole person as everyone is unique.
The scientific method is too objective because the methods employed fail to acknowledge the subjective experience of the individual.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
• A person’s most basic physiological needs are represented at the bottom of the pyramid and the most advanced needs are at the top.
• People are motivated to achieve progression through the levels, each level must be fulfilled before a person can move up to a higher need
• Maslow believed that the more basic the need the more powerfully it is experienced and the more difficult it is to ignore.
Self -actualisation occurs when a person reaches their full potential and is the best version of themselves. Self-actualisation concerns psychological growth, fulfilment and satisfaction in life and is the final stage in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
• Maslow found that most of those who attained self-actualisation shared certain characteristics such as being creative, accepting of other people and had an accurate perception of the world around them.
Maslow believed that such individuals experienced self-actualisation in the form of peak experiences.
These are moments of extreme inspiration and ecstasy during which they felt able to leave behind all doubts, fears and inhibitions.
Focus on the self: Roger’s
: Focus on the concept of self and self acceptance
Claimed that people have two basic needs, positive regard from other people and feelings of self-worth
(i.e. valuing ourselves).
• Feelings of self-worth develop in childhood as a result of the child’s interactions with parents. Further interactions with significant others in adulthood (friends, spouses etc.) also have an influence.
• The positive regard given by other people may be unconditional (unconditional positive regard) when a person is accepted for who they are, or conditional (conditional positive regard).
• When people experience conditional positive regard they develop conditions of worth. These are conditions which they believe have to be met if they are to be accepted by others. An individual will only experience a sense of self-acceptance if they meet the expectations that others have set as conditions of acceptance.
• Psychological issues are thought to arise as a result of conditions of worth, which are constraints an individual believes are put upon them by significant others that they deem necessary to gain positive regard.
Congruence/ incongruence
When there is a similarity between a persons’ perceived self (how they view themselves) and their ideal self (how they would like to be) a state of congruence exists.
• However, if there is a difference between the perceived self (self-concept) and ideal self, the person experiences a state of incongruence. This can lead to negative feelings of self-worth. The closer the perceived self is to the ideal self, the higher our feelings of self-worth.
• It is rare for a complete state of congruence to exist; most people experience some degree of incongruence. However, most people see themselves in ways that are largely consistent with their ideal self.
Evaluation of humanistic approach
1) There is supporting research evidence about the role of conditions of worth by Harter et al. They found that teenagers that felt they had to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain parents approval, frequently end up not liking themselves, and were more likely to develop depression. Therefore conditions of worth are an important element for well-being and mental health (+)
2) A disadvantage of the humanist approach is that even though humanists believe in free will; science believes that all behaviour is caused by something (i.e. it has been determined). Determinism in science allows for behavil laws and predictability of behaviour, so there is limited application of the humanistic approach to
3) A criticism of the humanistic approach is that it lacks scientific rigour; it proposes that we should study the whole person because each individual is unique. However science relies on reductionism i.e. reducing behaviour into its simplest components so that they can be studied objectively. (-)
4) A problem of the Humanist approach it that it proposes concepts such as self-actualisation where definitions lack operationalisation. There is no objective measure of whether someone has self-actualised leading to a lack of empirical evidence to support its claims. (-)
5) A problem about the ideas of humanistic psychology, such as personal growth, would be much more readily associated with individualist cultures in the Western world (e.g. the United States). Collectivist cultures (e.g. in China) which emphasise the needs of the community may not identify so easily with the ideals and values of humanistic psychology. Therefore, it is possible that this approach is the product of the cultural context within which it was developed. (-)
6) A strength of the humanist approach is the focus on personal growth. Humanistic therapy focuses on self-actualization and personal development. It helps people uncover their authentic selves and realize their full potential. Through this process, people can gain clarity about their values, aspirations, and goals, leading to a more fulfilling and meaningful life. (+)
Counselling psychology- Roger’s
• Rogers claimed that an individual’s psychological problems were a direct result of the conditional positive regard they receive from other people.
• With counselling, people would be able to solve their own problems in constructive ways
[Answer]
+.
• Instead of acting in a directive way, humanistic psychologists, regard themselves as guides to help people understand themselves and find ways to enable their potential for self-actualisation.
• Therapists provide unconditional positive regard, expressing their acceptance and understanding. They are therefore able to provide a supportive environment to help dissolve the client’s conditions of worth.
• This results in the client moving towards being more true to their self (i.e. able to behave in a way that is true to the person they are, rather than who someone else wants them to be).
