Relationships Flashcards
1
Q
Natural selection
A
Process by which inherited characteristics that enhance survival are passed onto next generation
2
Q
Process by which inherited characteristics that enhance survival are passed onto next generation
A
Natural selection
3
Q
Adaption
A
Functional products of natural selection or sexual selection in human evaluation
4
Q
Reproductive success
A
The degree to which an individual is successful in producing offspring that in turn are able to produce offspring of their own
5
Q
Sexual selection
A
Competition for mates between members of the same sec which has an impact on the evolution of certain facial and bodily features
6
Q
Inter-sexual selection
A
Preferred strategy of female- quality over quantity
Eggs are rarer than sperm and requires more energy to produce.
Females may be quite picky and choose a partner who can offer resources
Enhance a female’s reproductive success
Leads to men competing for the opportunity to mate with the fertile female
7
Q
Sexy sons hypothesis
A
A female mates with a male who had desirable characteristics and this sexy trait is inherited by her son. Increases chance that successive generations of females will mate with her offspring
8
Q
Intra-sexual selection
A
Prefer strategy of the male - quantity over quality
Refers to competition between males to be able to mate with a female
The winner of the competition gets to pass on its characteristics that’s helped him win to offspring
9
Q
Singh research
A
Research has suggested that the most attractive hip to waist ratio is 0.70. Honest signal that a woman isn’t pregnant but is fertile
10
Q
Male strategies
A
Courtships rituals
Size
Sperm competition
Mate guarding
Sneak copulation
11
Q
Female strategies
A
Handicap hypothesis
Sexy sons hypothesis
Courtship
12
Q
Courtship rituals
A
Allows showing off of genetic potential and resources
13
Q
Allows showing off of genetic potential and resources
A
Courtships rituals
14
Q
Size
A
Bigger body size Demonstrates physical strength
15
Q
Sperm competition
A
Men have evolved to have bigger testicles and faster swimming sperm
16
Q
Mate guarding
A
Keeping close eye on partners to prevent unfaithfulness
17
Q
Keeping close eye on partners to prevent unfaithfulness
A
Mate guarding
18
Q
Sneak competition
A
Being unfaithful can be beneficial to both parties
19
Q
Handicap hypothesis
A
Some women may pick men with handicaps as it shows an ability to thrive despite adversities. May explain why some women are attracted to men who drink and take drugs a lot
20
Q
Courtship
A
Dating is important strategy for females to establish a man’s worth to produce offspring
21
Q
Evaluation of evolution explanations for partner preference
A
+ research singh
+research buss
-external validity (doenst take into account those who don’t want children)
- temporal validity (changing roles of men and women )
22
Q
Self disclosure
A
Revelling of personal information about ourselves to an individual that we like
23
Q
Social penetration theory
A
Altman and Taylor
Gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone. In romantic relationships it involves reciprocal exchange of information
Displays trust and greater understanding of eachother
24
Q
Gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone. In romantic relationships it involves reciprocal exchange of information
Displays trust and greater understanding of eachother
A
Altman and Taylor social penetration theory
25
Breadth and depth of self disclosure
Breadth: at the start of relationship we disclose a lot of superficial information
Depth: as the relationship develops self-disclosure becomes deeper and higher risk
26
Reciprocity of self disclosure
Reis and shaver
Once you’ve disclosed something that reveals your true self hopefully partner will respond in a way that is with understanding, empathy and their own feelings
27
3 theories of self disclosure
Social penetration
Breadth and depth
Reciprocity of self disclosure
28
Evaluation of self disclosure
+ research (Spencer and Hendrick)
+ practical application (hass and Stafford)
- reductionist (other explanations of attractiveness like physical)
-cause and effect
29
The halo effect
Helo effect is where people that are deemed more attractive tend to benefit from favourable perceptions from society
For example an attractive person is more likely to be acquitted of a crime, deemed more trustworthy and sociable impact as physical attractiveness is what we see first in a person
30
where people that are deemed more attractive tend to benefit from favourable perceptions from society
Halo effect
31
Matching hypothesis
The theory that people will seek partners of similar attractiveness to themselves. This means we need to have a realistic judgement of how attractive we are in the first instance.
Additionally if one feels their partner is more attractive there is likely going to be fears they will leave
Hence implying our choice of partner isn’t most attractive but a compromise
32
Evaluation of physical attractiveness
+research (palmer and peterson) (gunnell and ceci)
- highly subjective
+ research to support matching hypothesis (Murstein)
-Cause and effect
33
Filter theory (name)
Kerchoff and Davies
34
Filter theory
Our choices of mates are limited by several factors and they filter down potential mates available to us.
1.Social demography
2. Similarity in attitudes
3.complementarity
35
Filter theory 1. Social demography
Factors that influence the likelihood of you meeting a partner in the first place. Your more likely to meet someone that you’re physically close too
36
Filter theory 2. Similarity in attitudes
Partners will often share important beliefs and values
37
Filter theory 3. Complementarity
The ability to meet each others needs and compliment each others personality traits
38
Evaluation of filter theory
-lacks temporal validity (dating apps)
+research (Peter winch)
-cause and effect (couples end up complementing eachother because of the time they spend together
39
Social exchange theory (name)
Thibault and Kelly
40
Social exchange theory summary
Proposes that relationships involve the exchange of resources. Relationships are based on profit someone perceives they will gain from the relationships
Once the relationship starts ‘costing’ more than it benefits the relationship is likely to fail and break down
41
Social exchange theory (Comparison level)
the comparison on the current relationship with often past relationships using them as a guide
42
Social exchange theory (comparison level for alternatives)
Other personal relationships are looked at. Eg if you’re feeling someone else or considering others. If they’re judged to offer more benefits the relationship will likely break up.
43
4 relationship development stages (Social Exchange)
Sampling
Bargaining
Commitment
Institutionalisation
44
Sampling stage (SET)
Rewards and costs are assessed in a number of relationships
45
Bargaining stage (SET)
The couple negotiates the relationship and agrees the rewards and costs. Marking the start of the relationship where partners start to exchange
46
Commitment stage (SET)
The couple settles into the relationship and the exchange of reward becomes fairly predictable. Stability also increases as rewards increase and costs decrease
47
Institutionalisation stage (SET)
Norms and expectations are firmly established. The couple fully settle down
48
Evaluations for Social Excange theory
+ Rusbult and Zembradt
+ practical applications (fixing relationships)
- theoretical flaw (costs are less important when forming but more important when breaking down)
-negative view on humans (selfish)
49
Equity theory name
Walster
50
Equity theory overview
Based on fairness between partners. Individuals will become dissatisfied if they feel they are suffering from inequity (over or under benefitting)
Underbeneffitting can lead to feelings of anger, hostility
Overbeneffiting can lead to can guilt and shame
51
Perceived equity
Inequity doesn’t necessarily mean inequality.
Because a person holds subjective views on the relative inputs and outputs of themselves and partner.
52
Profit (equity theory)
Benefits of the relationships - the costs
53
Distribution (equity)
Trade-offs and compensations negotiated
54
Dissatisfaction (equity)
Less unfairness leads to less dissatisfaction
55
Realignment (equity)
Attempts made to realign equity
56
Evaluations of equity theory
+Dainton
+Yum (transcends cultural differences)
-cause issues (people only think about fairness when the relationship is already in trouble)
57
Commitment (relationships)
The likelihood that someone will persist in an existing relationship, this is influenced by high satisfaction and investment
58
Rusbults model of investments
Satisfaction + Alternatives + investments
=
Commitment
=
Future stay or leave decision
59
Satisfaction factor (rusbult)
To what degree does ur partner meet ur needs. Similar to Social exchange, it is based on the concept of a comparison level. We would conduct a cost benefit analysis to judge the level of satisfaction
60
Comparison with alternatives (rusbult)
Does the relationship stand up to other possible alternatives?
Could your needs be better met outside the relationship?
Commitment to the relationship is stronger if needs are better met
61
Investment size factor (rusbult)
The longer the relationship continues the more the partners have invested into it. The more that is invested, the stronger the commmitment.
Ending the relationship at this point would make all the investment useless
62
Rusbults maintainence behaviours
Accommodation
Willingness to sacrifice
Forgiveness
Positive illusions
Ridiculing alternatives
63
Accommodation (Rusbults maintenance behaviours)
Partners should not engage in tit-for-tat retaliation, but instead act to promote the relationship
64
Willingness to sacrifice (Rusbults maintenance behaviours)
Partners should also put their partners interests first
65
Forgiveness (Rusbults maintenance behaviours)
Partners should forgive them for any …
66
Positive illusions (Rusbults maintenance behaviours)
Partners should be unrealistically positive about partner
67
Ridiculing alternatives (Rusbults maintenance behaviours)
Should be negative about others weaknesses and alternatives
68
Evaluations for Rusbults investment model of commitment
+explains abusive relationships
+ face validity
+ Le and Agnew meta analysis
- oversimplification of investment (goodfriend and Agnew)
-divorce still occurs
69
Buss research
Found men preferred younger women across 37 different cultures and women prefer older men with vast resources
70
Who Found men preferred younger women across 37 different cultures and women prefer older men with vast resources
Buss
71
Toma
Found men find it easier to lie about income and education when it comes to personal advertisements in newspapers
72
Who Found men find it easier to lie about income and education when it comes to personal advertisements in newspapers
Toma
73
Cartwright
Found women with symmetrical breast were more fertile than women with asymmetrical breasts. Supporting the idea that symmetry suggests higher fertility.
74
Who Found women with symmetrical breast were more fertile than women with asymmetrical breasts. Supporting the idea that symmetry suggests higher fertility.
Cartwright
75
Spencer and Hendricks
Studied heterosexual couples and found a strong correlation between satisfaction and self disclosure. Meaning they’re more happy and committed to the relationship. Implying that reciprocated self disclosure leads to more satisfying relationships
76
Hass and Stafford
Found 57% of gay men and women in their study said that open and honest self disclosure was how they maintained their relationship- therefore this can help people strengthen bonds and maintain a relationship
77
Who Found 57% of gay men and women in their study said that open and honest self disclosure was how they maintained their relationship-
Hass and Stafford
78
Murstein
Asked participants to judge the attractiveness of real and fake couples in photographs. Murstein found that couples ratings of attractiveness were significantly closer than that of the fake couples. Supporting matching hypothesis
79
Gunnell and Ceci
Found that less attractive people were 22% more likely to be convicted in court. They were also likely to get a prison sentence that was on average 22 months longer than that of an attractive personal
80
Who Found that less attractive people were 22% more likely to be convicted in court. They were also likely to get a prison sentence that was on average 22 months longer than that of an attractive personal
Gunnell and Ceci
81
Palmer and Peterson
Found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent. Halo effect even persisted when the participants were aware of no expertise
82
Hatfield
Found participants who under benefitted in a relationship were angry and felt deprived, whereas those that over benefitted felt guilty.
83
Rusbult and martz
Applied SET to women who were in abusive relationships. Established women would tend to go back into abusive relationships as there was no better alternatives
84
Dainton
Studies 219 individuals in romantic relationships and found that people who had perceive inequity had low satisfaction in their relationships
85
Yum et al
Researched cultural differences in 6 cultures and found that most equitable couples performed the most maintenance strategies suggesting it takes alot of effort to keep a relationship equitable
86
Intrinsic investments
Things we put into a relationship such as time effort and money
87
Extrinsic investments
Things we received from a relationship such as kids memories and interweaved friendships
88
Lin and rusbult
Found emailed generally reported higher satisfaction levels, poorer scores for alternative relationships, greater investment scores and stronger commitment overall
89
Van Lange
Found support for all aspects of the model in Taiwanese students suggesting cross cultural consensus
90
Ducks 3 relationship breakdown types
Pre existing doom
Mechanical failure
Sudden death
91
Pre existing doom
Relationship was doomed from the start as the two ppl were not compatible
92
Mechanical failure
Partners who are compatible slowly grow apart over time and decide things are no longer working
93
Sudden death
Where the relationship suddenly ends
Could be cheating or because of an argument
94
Sudden death
When the relationship suddenly ends
Could be due to cheating or an argument
95
Ducks 4 stage model
Intrapshycic stage
Dyadic stage
Social stage
Grave dressing stage
Resurrection stage
96
Intrapsychic stage (duck)
One partner feels privately dissatisfied with the relationship
97
Dyadic stage (duck)
Dissatisfaction is discussed with partner. And if nothing happens the relationship breaks down
98
Social stage (duck)
Breakdown is made public to friends and family. Negotiations may occur
99
Grave dressing stage (duck)
Post relationship perception is created Ex partners will now rebuild life towards new relationships
100
Resurrection stage duck
Reconfiguring oneself for future relationships- new behaviours etc
101
Evaluation of ducks model
+applicability to friendships
-not universal
+ face validity
-hard to actually study (long time)
+ practical applications
-determanistic
102
Virtual relationships
Most common among young people who have grown up on social media. It’s expected to grow in usage as more people meet a dating age and is predicted to become the norm for dating
103
Bø
Found females are more picky when males when it comes to choosing/swiping on dating sites
104
Who Found females are more picky when males when it comes to choosing/swiping on dating sites
Bø
105
Benefits of internet dating / virtual relationships
People who are less socially skilled can benefit
106
Drawbacks of internet dating/virtual relationships
Misrepresentation of oneself
Anonymity leads to harassment
107
Cornwell and Lundgren
Surveyed 80 chat rooms and found 28% misrepresented their physical appearance and 23% their age
108
Who surveyed 80 chat rooms to find out about misrepresentation
Cornwell and Lundgren
Found 28% misrepresentated appearance and 23% their age
109
Self disclosure in VR
Is quicker more intense and leads to affection quicker.
Self disclosure is less likely to be exposed leading to more being disclosed and ppl that are less socially skilled may be able to make better disclosures
There is also more truthful SD due to anonymity
110
Schouten
People high in social anxiety experience greater disclosure due to absence of nonverbal cues that they typically struggle with
111
Yim and Hara
Found there was cultural difference between us and Japanese participants in how disclosure increased or decreased trust
112
Evaluation of self disclosure in VR
+ Research to support whitty and Johnson
+ help those with anxiety
-cultural differences (yim and hara)
- flawed as relations ships are multi modal (walther)
113
Walther
Argues modern relationships are a mix of in person and online. Not a straight forward matter of either or hence examining self disclosure of online relationships is theoretically flawed
114
Whitty and Johnson
Found that questions in online relationships were very direct and intimate and would never be seen in a face to face relationship. And people didn’t have an issue answering the personal questions online supporting the hyperpersonal model and self disclosure
115
Found that questions in online relationships were very direct and intimate and would never be seen in a face to face relationship. And people didn’t have an issue answering the personal questions online supporting the hyperpersonal model and self disclosure
Whitty and Johnson
116
Absence of gating
Gates are things that put us off continuing the relationship further.
However Tech advancements are making it less harder to hide gates
Theory also states in virtual relationships the bond has developed to a point that gates are looked past
117
Bargh
Found that intimacy develops quicker in VR because of lack of gating features
118
Who found intimacy develops quicker in VR due to absence of gating
Bargh
119
Mckenna
Found removal of gating allowed typically unattractive people to enter relationships
120
Absence of gating evaluations
+larger pool
+Mckenna practical app
-little research into gender differences
-self report data
-gating is starting to come in
121
Sproull and keisler reduced cues
Reduce cues theory
Suggested online relationships are less open and honest then face to face due to us relying on subtle cues such as facial expressions and tone of voice
Reduction in communication cues leads to deindividuation as it diminishes peoples sense of identity
122
Hyperpersonal model walther
Hyper honest and hyper dishonest
Self disclose is more quick and the VR becomes more intense and feels more intimate and meaningful- leading to a more abrupt ending due to a difficulty in maintaining this same level for a prolonged period of time
Projecting a more positive image may lead to an online partner wanting to disclose more information
123
Rubin
We are likely to share personal info with a stranger as we are likely to never see them again
‘Stranger on the train’
124
Parasocial relationships
Ppl who believe they are in a relationship with someone who doesn’t even know they exist
This typically occurs between 11-17 and can be good for creating an identity.
Negative correlation between levels of education and intensity of parasocoal relationship
125
Turner
Found parasocial relationships tend to form with people who have similar attitudes with the individual. Suggesting many ps relationships are like normal friendships only one sided
126
Giles and Murray
Celebrity attitude scale
127
3 stages of celebrity attitude scale
1- entertainment social
2-intense personal
3- borderline pathological
128
Entertainment social stage of ps relationships
Celebs are seen and a source of entertainment and as a topic for lighthearted conversations
129
Intense personal stage of ps relationship
Deeper level of parasocial relationships. At this level a person has a more intense relationship with the celebrity. For example they may see them as a sole mate and they have an intense interest in their personal lives
130
Borderline pathological stage of ps relationship
Most intense level. They have obsessive fantasies about the celebrity. They spend large sums if money to obtain memorabilia and they may stalk
131
Meloy
found that stalkers tend to have a history of failed sexual relationships. Stalking tends to be a response to social and sexual incompetence. Providing support for the idea that the individual is trying to absorb the celebs success
132
Maltby
Found people in entertainment social stage were mentally healthy however those in higher categories experienced poor mental and physical health
133
Absorbtion addiction model
An individual may feel dissatisfied with their lives so they follow and admire celebrities to fill a gap. The individual will absorb the success to make themselves feel good.
In Extreme cases the parasocial relationship becomes addicting for the individual
134
Greenwood and long
Found evidence that people develop PS as a way of dealing with a recent loss or loneliness
135
Rvqluations of AA model of PS relationships
Socially sensitive
Practical applications in therapy (try make people see their success)
Correlational
136
Attachment model of PS relationships
Insecure resistant are more likely to meter a parasocial relationship as it offers a close emotional relationship with very little chance of rejection.
137
Insecure resistant people
Received inconsistent care which leads to a clingy attention seeking behaviour and very intense emotions
Seek proximity in ps relationships through trying to contact
Secure base as there is no chance of rejection
Protest at disruption Distraught feelings when celeb dies ot band breaks up
138
Kienlen
63% of stalkers expirenced an early loss of primary caregivers usually due to parental seperation
50% reported abuse as a child
139
Who found 63% of stalkers expirenced an early loss of primary caregivers usually due to parental seperation
50% reported abuse as a child
Kienlen
140
Le and Agnew
Meta analysis of 52 studies they found that satisfaction, comparison and investment all predicted relationship commitment. These relationships also lasted longer implying there is validity to rusbults claims
141
Le and Agnew
Meta analysis of 52 studies they found that satisfaction, comparison and investment all predicted relationship commitment. These relationships also lasted longer implying there is validity to rusbults claims
142
Meta analysis of 52 studies they found that satisfaction, comparison and investment all predicted relationship commitment. These relationships also lasted longer implying there is validity to rusbults claims
Le and agnew
143
Goodfriend and agnew
Point out that there
Is more to investment than just resources you have already put into a relationship
In the early stages partners will have made very few investments. They extended rusbukts original model by including future plans
Implying that rusbults simple view of commitment doenst include future plans
144
Rusbult and zembradt
Conducted longitudinal study with 30 students in heterosexual relationships. Pts were asked to compete a questionnaire every 17 days for 7 months where they were asked to weigh up costs and benefits.
Found that from those who stayed in relationships that increases in rewards led to better satisfaction
145
Rusbult and zembradt
Conducted longitudinal study with 30 students in heterosexual relationships. Pts were asked to compete a questionnaire every 17 days for 7 months where they were asked to weigh up costs and benefits.
Found that from those who stayed in relationships that increases in rewards led to better satisfaction
146
Evaluations for attatchment model of ps relationships
+kienlen
-McCuthceon
-fails to take into account that psr can be harmless and healthy
