relationships Flashcards
what is sexual selection
An evolutionary explanation for partner preference, suggesting that attributes beneficial to survival and which increase reproductive success (so are adaptive) are passed on through genes. Therefore, human reproductive behaviour, including mate choice preferences, are affected by evolution.
what is anisogamy and how does it relate to sexual selection
the concept of anisogamy – differences between male and female sex cells.
There are differences between male and female gametes, and the term ‘anisogamy’ describes this.
Differences may be in terms of the size of the gametes, the energy invested into their production, whether they are static or mobile, and the intervals at which they are produced. This is reflected in
the two types of sexual selection, and which is preferred by each gender i.e. intra-sexual selection and inter-sexual selection.
what is inter-sexual selection
- Inter-sexual selection describes the strategies that each sex uses to attract the other. This is the ‘quality over quantity’ approach and is favoured by females because they invest more energy into the development of ova, which are produced in limited numbers at intervals across their lives, and the fact that females experience more post-coital responsibility compared to males. Therefore, a
female will be more ‘choosy’ as to who she mates with, due to her limited reproductive resources.
This, from an evolutionary standpoint, enables the high quality of her offspring.
what is an example of inter sexual selection
An example of inter-sexual selection would be Fisher’s ‘sexy sons hypothesis’. This suggests that, through a female choosing to mate with an attractive male, her offspring will also grow up to be
attractive or ‘sexy’, and so are themselves likely to attract females to mate with. This ensures that
the female’s genes are passed on through several generations, thus increasing the likelihood that these genes will remain in the gene pool.
name another example of inter-sexual selection
hint handicap
handicap hypothesis
a women chooses a man with handicaps as it shows his ability to thrive with handicap, demonstrating genetic superiority
eg females who find males more attractive that drink or smoke or do alot of drugs in large amounts- demonstrates ability to handle toxins, a sign of genetic fitness.
what is intra sexual selection
- Intra-sexual selection describes the strategies used within sexes to attract males. This is the ‘quantity over quality’ approach and is favoured by males because they produce sperm
continuously throughout their lifetime, with little energy investment and limited post-coital responsibility. Therefore, from an evolutionary perspective, it is most effective to impregnate as many
women as possible, in order to ensure the survival of their genes.
what is an example of intra sexual selection
Examples of intra-sexual selection strategies would be males behaving aggressively and being protective of their female (reducing the likelihood that she will be impregnated by another competing
male), being larger (and so more sexually desirable to women), as well as possessing certain facial and physical characteristics (e.g. strong jawlines and broad shoulders).
what is sexual dimorphism
These differences in mating strategies and anisogamy results in dimorphism i.e. the physical differences between the male and female sexes.
males>deeper voice, facial hair
females>breasts, hips, smother skin
these factors increase chances of survival into adulthood and sexual maturity.
devaluation point :(
hint hashtagbossbabies
— Evidence suggests that it is incorrect to assume that current reproductive patterns still have a strong evolutionary basis, but rather an interactionist approach would be more accurate, where the
influences of both culture and evolution are combined together, as suggested by Chang et al (2011).
Changing social and cultural norms means that women no longer place a large emphasis on resource-availability when looking for a new partner, as suggested by Bereczkei et al (1997) because
women are now more financially independent, with the average age of marriage currently exceeding
30. This suggests that some evolutionary pressures for inter-sexual selection no longer apply in the
modern climate.
positive evaluation hint: bodyody, for a long time,researcher
+ However, research has suggested that there are some sexual selection pressures which have been constant in terms of evolution and in terms of modern times, such as the hip to waist ratio, as suggested by Singh (1993). If this ratio is around 0.7, then this demonstrates to potential mates that the female is fertile and able to carry children over a long period of time, with birth being easier when the female has larger hips and a narrower waist. Therefore, this suggests that some evolutionary pressures are still relevant in modern times.
another positive for sexual selection inter and intra
hint: college study
+ There is also evidence supporting the idea that females are more selective when it comes to potential mates, due to their greater energy and genetic input into the pregnancy and care for the child, as suggested by Clark and Hatfield (1989). These researchers found that 75% of college males, compared to 0% of females, would be willing to sleep with a stranger if this stranger had approached them and complimented them! This supports the idea that men have an evolutionary
what are the three factors affecting relationships
self disclosure
phsyical attractiveness
filter theory
what is self disclosure and what is its aim
- Self-disclosure refers to the information we choose to reveal about ourselves within a romantic relationship. The aim of self-disclosure is to increase the intimacy, understanding and empathy between two individuals. This is under the condition that the self-disclosure is reciprocal.
what has altman and taylor suggested
Altman and Taylor have proposed the ‘social penetration’ theory, which suggests that the process of self-disclosure allows one person to penetrate deeper into the life of their partner, thus increasing intimacy and trust.
However, it is important to be selective with what one chooses to disclose.
what is the onion analogy
The researchers have used an onion analogy to illustrate this. As the relationship progresses, more layers of the onion are removed, representing deeper and more meaningful information being disclosed. This is only likely to occur if the exchange of such information is reciprocal i.e. the other person showing empathy, understanding and revealing personal details about themselves.
Such exchanges represents a stage in the relationship which is serious and characterised by trust.
what does this state about revealing too much information in the first stages of the relationship
Revealing intimate details about oneself at the beginning of a relationship may have detrimental effects
e.g. revealing ‘too much information’. This demonstrates to the other person that at least one person in the relationship does not trust the other
what does reis and saver state (1988)
- Reis and Shaver (1988) suggest that there are two elements of the social penetration theory - depth
and breadth. There is a positive correlation between the increasing quality and trust within a
relationship, coinciding with increasing depth and breadth of revealed information. - For example, high levels of breadth result in low levels of depth due to many topics being ‘off limits’,
thus reducing the emotional impact and empathy shown by the other person. This is the kind of
information we would disclose to strangers, colleagues etc. - Therefore, the key to maintaining a developing and intimate relationship is a balance between depth
and breadth, through the reciprocal self-disclosure of information from both parties.
what is supporting evidence for this H&S in terms of self disclosure and intimacy
+ An increased understanding of the importance of self-disclosure in building and maintaining intimacy
within relationships can have a real-life practical advantage, as suggested by Hass and Stafford (1998).
These researchers found that for couples with high levels of intimacy and commitment within
their relationships, 57% reported the use of self-disclosure as a way to maintain it.
Therefore, this supports the use of therapies which focus on increasing the depth and breadth of self-disclosure for couples who struggle with intimacy, as well as increasing trust within the relationship. These are the predictions made by social penetration theory, thus further increasing the validity of this theory!
what is another piece of supporting evidence for self disclosure laurenceau
+ However, there is research support for the predictions made by social penetration theory, as suggested by Laurence au et al (2005). These researchers found that, on the basis of daily diary entries, high levels of intimacy and trust were strongly associated or correlated with high levels of self-disclosure, in married couples. This suggests that the depth and breadth of self-disclosure is strongly predictive of the intimacy and quality of romantic relationships, which again supports the validity of the social penetration theory as an indicator of relationship quality
what are the factors affecting self disclosure in relationships
appropriateness of the disclosure
sometimes disclosing personal information can be innapropriate eg on a first date- suggests that the individual is lacking in social skills. More attractive people would be sensitive to these norms
attributions of the disclosure- the reasons we believe a person is disclosing to us as important. Less attraction occurs if an individual is seen as the kind of person who discloses personal information to everyone. However, more attraction occurs if we believe an individual sees us as someone they especially want to disclose initmate information to
what did spechr and hedick prove about self disclosure (2004)
found that through studying heterosexual couples that there was a strong correlation between several measures of relationship satisfaction and self-disclosure
what is another problem with the self disclosure theory
its too reductionist
it is unlikely that the attractiveness of a partner would be reliant purely on the level/type of self disclosure. It is more likely that self disclosure would interact with other considerations, such as level of physical attractiveness, similarity of interest/attitudes for example
what is the definition of pyhsical attractiveness
physical attractiveness is an important factor in the formation of romantic relationships. The term usually apllies to specifically to how appealing we find a persons face. There is a general aggrement within and across cultures about what in considered phsycially attractive
what did shackleford and learson find aboutt attractiveness in terms of symetry
Shackleford and Learson (1977) found that people with symmetrical faces are more attractive as they have a honest signal of genetic fitness (its hard to fake facial symetry)
what was also found out about attractiveness in terms of baby face
females with neotenous (child-like) faces are
more likely to be viewed as attractive by males because their facial features (e.g. a soft chin and large eyes) trigger an aggressive and protective trait in men, which gives the female an evolutionary advantage (i.e. increasing her risk of survival and reproduction
what is the halo effect Dion
The halo effect suggests that we have a tendency to associate highly attractive people with preconceived disproportionately positive characteristics, including personality and wealth, even though these factors may not be linked.
Therefore, we are more likely to view attractive people as trustworthy, honest, successful and more sociable compared to their unattractive counterparts i.e. ‘what is beautiful is good’ (Dion et al). These beliefs increase the likelihood that such attractive people develop these traits, and so displays the process of a self-fulfilling prophecy.
What is the matching hypothesis-basic straight forward answer two part
attractive people expect an attractive partner
couples who are equally matched are happier
what is the matching hypothesis
Walster
Walster et al (1966) The key to a successful relationship, according to the Matching Hypothesis, is striking a balance
between the attractiveness of a mate and the realistic chances of attaining such a mate. This relies on an accurate assessment of one’s own attractiveness and ‘value’, meaning that we are more likely
to have a mate who is of a similar attractiveness level to us.
Such a method reduces the likelihood of rejection by a seemingly unattainable individual (in terms of attraction) and
the potential disappointment of a disproportionately less
attractive mate.
what did Palmer and Peterson find
evidence for the halo effect
palmer and peterson found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knwoledgable and competent than unattractive people persisted when people knew that the knowledgable people had no expertise obvious implication for the political process
what is a negative review of the halo effect
not all people place importance-Touehy (1979) asked male and female pp to rate how much they would like a target individual based on their photograph and some biographical information
-completed a questionnare to measure sexist attitudes (Macho scale, Villouhmez and Talley,1977)
-pp who scored highly on the questionnaire, were more influenced by physical attractiveness, when making their judgment based on likeability
what is research support for the matching hypothesis Feingold (1988)
meta analysis of 17 studies and found a significant correlation in ratings of attractiveness between romantic partners
what is contradictory research for the matched hypothesis
Taylor et al (2011) studies online dating site date choices
Online daters sought meetings with potential partners who were physically more attractive than them
state two experiments for the role of cultural differences in relationships
Cunningham et al (1995)- female features of large eyes, prominent cheekbones, small nose and high eyebrows were rated as highly attractive by White, Hispanic and Asian males
Wheeler and Kim (1997)-Korean and american students judged physically attractive people to be more trustworthy, concerned for other people, mature and freindly
what is the filter theory and who founded it
the filter theory founded by khosh 1996 states that possible mates from a range of eligible candidates. The theory suggests that people use different methods at different levels of the process.
We start with proximity variables such as geographical location. We then move to more similarity variables such as race and social class then to complementary variables, where we are likely to seek personality characteristics which complement our own values and augments what were lacking
what is the first filter-describe it
The first filter is social demography, and describes the factors which can make potential partners
attractive to us. Key to this is the idea of similarity in terms of these factors which include religion,
sexuality, ethnicity, social class, educational attainment and proximity. Two people sharing similar
social demographic features are more likely to find each other attractive. Nevertheless, proximity is
key because it provides accessibility, which makes communication and relationship formation
between both parties easier, as the two individuals have regular access to each other. Therefore,
close proximity between two individuals may ‘trump’ dissimilarities in other social demographic
features.
what is the second filter
- The second filter is similarity in attitudes, which is particularly important in short-term relationships
i.e. less than 18 months in duration. This describes basic similarities in terms of core beliefs about
significant topics, such as love, sex and religion. Large dissimilarities in the attitudes expressed
between two partners may cause the relationship to end, because of the incompatibility that would
result in the long-term.
the third and final filter describe it
The third and final filter, which is particularly important in long-term relationships, is the idea of
complementarity. A relationship is more likely to be successful if two people feel that they ‘complete’
each other to form a ‘whole’, therefore supporting the common belief that opposites attract e.g. a
sociable individual will enjoy encouraging their partner to partake in more activities, which in turn
means that the partner will enjoy and benefit themselves from improved social skills.
what did Kerchkoff and Davis do to prove their theory (1962)
Survey of female university students and their male partners who were considering marriage.
-personalities, attitudes and their relationship
-7 months later they completed a follow-up survey about progression
-Couples who has been together for <18 months were more likely to progress towards marriage if they had similar values
>18 months, it was couples who had complementary needs.
what is supporting evidence for filter theory Winch (1958)
There is evidence to support that filter theory is an important predictor of the progression and initial
development of a relationship, as suggested by Winch (1958). He found that initial similarities in
beliefs and attitudes were cited as one of the main attractive features in the partners of respondents,
which is in line with the predictions made by the matching hypothesis, as well as increasing the
validity of filter theory as a way of narrowing the field of availables down to a field of desirables.
Therefore, this suggests that even in the modern age, filter theory and the matching hypothesis are
still valid explanations of relationship formation.
what are the theories of a romantic relationship
Social Exchange Theory
Equity Theory
Rusbult’s Investment Model
Duck’s Phase Model
social exchange theory what is it who are its researchers
Thibault and Kelley (1959).
- The Social Exchange Theory for relationship formation takes an ‘economical’ approach, viewing relationships as worthwhile based on their relative costs and benefits, with the ‘minimax’ principles
suggesting that we all aim to increase our rewards and decrease our benefits.
We invest time, energy and money into each relationship and so we want to ‘get our worth’. This relates to the opportunity cost, which suggests that we must choose whether to invest these resources into our current relationship, or in other opportunities.
how do we assess potential profits
In order to assess the potential profits we gain from a
relationship (i.e. rewards — cost), we can use
comparison levels and comparison of alternatives
what are CL
- Comparison levels (CL) refer to our perception of
what we are worth and so what we can get out of a
relationship. This perception becomes more
sophisticated, and potentially more accurate, with
experience because we can base our CL off of a
larger number of relationships and experiences
what factors affect our cl
Our CL is also influenced by social and cultural factors,
such as what novels and TV programs depict as a
good or bad relationship.
what do our cl determine
Our CL determines the quality of the relationship we
are looking for, and hence the quality of our partner. For example, a person with feelings of worthlessness may ‘settle’ for relationships which yield little profit.
what’s the second method of assessing profit
name a person and a phrase
- comparison of alternatives.
Individuals may consider ending a relationship if they can see that there are other alternatives which would give them a larger return on the investment they are making towards their current relationship. However, this is a sign of an unstable relationship, and a couple who are satisfied will not be looking for alternatives.
Duck (1994)-plenty more fish in the sea
what are the 4 stages of assessing profit
- There are 4 stages of assessing the quality and profit of a relationship: sampling (rewards and costs
are determined through trial and error), bargaining (as a couple become more committed,
compromises are made in terms of cost and rewards), commitment (such standards of cost and
rewards are known to both parties) and institutionalisation (these standards and expectations are
well-established).
what did BLAU state about relationships
relationships can be expensive, time cost energy money stress
Opportunity cost can be incurred
Time and energy invested in your relationship means using resources you cannot invest anywhere else
what do Clark and mills state about relationships
negative
Clark and Mills (2011) argue that SET fails to distinguish between two types of relationships
They suggest that exchange relationships such as between work colleges, does involve social exchange as the SET predicts
Communal relationships do not keep tabs on rewards and costs .
Set claims that reciprocal activities are monitored and weighed up
what does it say about direction of cause and effect
two experiments
Argyle (1987) argues that we do not measure costs and rewards in a relationship, nor do we constantly consider the attractiveness of alternatives
Dissatisfaction comes first
Miller 1997 found that people who rated themselves as being in a highly committed relationship spent less time looking at images of attractive people
Less time spent looking was a predictor of the relationship continuing two months later
what does this theory say about equity
if the benefits of a relationship exceed the costs for an individual, if this excess is not equal to that of their partner’s, then this inequity is likely to be a major cause of dissatisfaction in the relationship, even
if the two partners have similar perceptions of their comparison levels.
This idea has been supported by equity research, such as that conducted by Utne et al (1984).
what is the problem with equity theory in terms of measurements
these concepts are subjective - there’s no universal measure for what someone should expect or what would be a good alternative. For example, how much of a difference in comparison levels (CL and CLalt) is enough to make someone unhappy in a relationship? There’s no clear answer because it depends on the individual’s perception.
SET doesn’t provide clear “thresholds” or specific values for these concepts because what might be a deal-breaker for one person might not be for another. It means that SET acknowledges the subjectivity in people’s perceptions of what’s considered good or bad in a relationship.
what is the equity theory
- Equity theory, unlike social exchange theory, suggests that striking a balance between the ratio of cost and reward that each individual has is the key to a successful relationship. Therefore, couples are not always looking to maximise their gains, but simply to have a ‘fair’ relationship. This is not the
same as equality where this ratio, alongside levels of cost and reward, would be the same for both
partners.
