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Cognitive Psychology > Reasoning 1 > Flashcards

Reasoning 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a heuristic?

A

A mental shortcut

Allows us to make decisions

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2
Q

Why are we ‘forced’ to rely upon mental shortcuts (heuristics)

A

Make sense of a complex world

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3
Q

We use heuristics because cognitive limitations simply would not allow us to…

A

Make rational/sound choices all the time

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4
Q

What are four reasons why we use heuristics to help us make decisions?

A

1) Effort reduction
2) Attribute substitution
3) Fast/usually correct
4) Consistently associated with good results

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5
Q

How can heuristics lead to stereotypes and prejudice?

A

We tend to oversimplify

Overlook vital info

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6
Q

Why will heuristics sometimes produce errors?

A

Not designed to be accurate/reliable in every situation

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7
Q

Can heuristics lead to stereotyping and bias?

A

Yes

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8
Q

The difference between biases and mistakes are that mistakes are one-off, systematic errors, but biases are……

A

Making the wrong choice, for a reason

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9
Q

______ may be made because we are a) using a strategy optimised for a different environment b) using a different cost/benefit analysis

A

Systematic errors

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10
Q

Prospect theory assumes that…

A

Losses and gains are valued differently

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11
Q

Losses and gains are valued differently.

Which theory is this?^

A

Prospect Theory

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12
Q

According to Prospect Theory, do people make decisions based on perceived gains or perceived losses?

A

Perceived gains

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13
Q

Prospect Theory -

If two choices are put towards an individual, both equal, with one presented in terms of potential gains and the other in terms of losses, which one will be selected?

A

The gains option

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14
Q

Prospect Theory

Are low probabilities underweighted or overweighted?

A

Overweighted

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15
Q

Prospect Theory

Are high probabilities underweighted or overweighted?

A

Underweighted

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16
Q

Prospect Theory

People often prefer to gamble to _______

A

Avoid losses

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17
Q

What is anchoring?

A

Tendency to be biased towards starting value (the anchor)

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18
Q

A jury of individuals asked to consider a harsh verdict were harsher in their final decision than a jury of individuals asked to consider a lenient verdict

What heuristic is this an example of?

A

Anchoring

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19
Q

What is anchoring and adjustment? (Focus on adjustment)

A

Begin with anchor

Adjust accordingly

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20
Q

What is the representativeness heuristic?

A

Allocate set of attributes to someone if they match the prototype of that category

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21
Q

In a hospital, you look for someone wearing a white coat and stethoscope, as you believe this signifies ‘doctor’.

Which heuristic is this?

A

Representativeness

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22
Q

What (negative) can the representativeness heuristic lead to?

A

Stereotyping

Discrimination

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23
Q

What is the base rate fallacy?

A

Ignore statistical info in favour of representativeness info

24
Q

Which fallacy is the representativeness heuristic prone to error because of?

A

Base rate fallacy

25
Q

Bias can be driven by memory _____

A

errors

26
Q

What is the availability heuristic?

A

Judging a situation based on its familiarity (similar situations that spring to mind)

27
Q

What does the availability heuristic lead to individuals doing?

A

Extrapolating a different situation onto their own

28
Q

You are on a plane, and feeling quite uneasy at the idea of the plane crashing. Your mind immediately springs to a headline you saw in the newspaper of a plane crash, which serves to fuel your anxiety.

What heuristic is this example of?

A

Availability heuristic

29
Q

According to the availability heuristic, the examples that spring more easily to mind will be judged as…

A

More frequently occurring therefore more likely to happen

30
Q

What is the recognition heuristic?

A

People infer that the recognised object//place/person has higher value

31
Q

You want to travel to whichever city has the best nightlife. You have heard of Leeds, but you haven’t heard of Bristol. You therefore infer that Leeds must have the best nightlife.

What heuristic is this an example of?

A

Recognition heuristic

32
Q

Which heuristic has been described as ecologically rational?

A

Recognition heuristic

33
Q

Are we loss averse or risk averse?

A

Loss averse

34
Q

What strategy do we use living in an uncertain world where we want to make quick decisions?

A

Heuristics

35
Q

Why aren’t ‘perfect decisions always possible?’ (I, L)

A

Imperfect information

Limited resources

36
Q

Why aren’t heuristics designed to be accurate/reliable for every situation?

A

Heuristics have broad applications

37
Q

What 3 heuristics are referred to in Kahnem and Tversky’s paper?

A

Representativeness

Availability

Adjustment/anchoring

38
Q

Kahnem and Tversky say representativeness, availability and adjustment/anchoring lead to….

A

A variety of biases

39
Q

Words starting with K are judged as more frequent than words with K as the third letter.

This is an example of ^

A

Availability heuristic

40
Q

We evaluate things by how typical they seem, e.g. tossing a coin (heads)

Which heuristic is this

A

Representativeness heuristic

41
Q

What is the conjunction fallacy?

A

It is assumed multiple specific conditions are more probable than a single one

e.g. Linda must be a feminist and bank teller

42
Q

You are asked how many sweets there are in a jar at a fair. You see someone else has guessed 400, so you guess 420. What is this an example of?

A

Anchoring and adjustment

43
Q

Prospect Theory

When faced with a choice, a rational decision maker will prefer…

A

Prospect with highest expected utility

44
Q

Prospect Theory

The value function is commonly ‘ ‘ Shaped

A

S

45
Q

What is meant by expected utility

A

Value of an outcome X probability

46
Q

What is meant by heuristics exploiting environmental structure?

A

If someone is consistently associated with a good option, use it as a shortcut

47
Q

Biases are making the wrong choice, but

A

For a reason

48
Q

Heuristic errors reveal normal mechanisms of ________

A

Reasoning

49
Q

Someone might make a systematic error because they are

a) Using strategy optimised for diff environment
b) Considering different choices
C)….

A

Using a different cost/benefit analysis

50
Q

a) Using a strategy for diff environment
b) Considering diff choices
c) Using a diff cost/benefit analysis
These are all reasons why someone might

A

Make a systematic error

51
Q

A heuristic is _____, whereas rational thinking is _____ (speed)

A

Quick

Slow

52
Q

Heuristics are automatic

T/F

A

True

53
Q

Rational thinking is automatic

T/F

A

False

54
Q

Rational thinking requires effort

T/F

A

True

55
Q

Heuristics require effort

T/F

A

False

56
Q

Heuristics are unconscious

T/F

A

True

57
Q

Heuristics and rational thinking in relation to dual process theory…

A

Two processes

Can switch between modes in right circumstances

Cognitive Psychology (10 decks)

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