Reasoning 1 Flashcards
What is a heuristic?
A mental shortcut
Allows us to make decisions
Why are we ‘forced’ to rely upon mental shortcuts (heuristics)
Make sense of a complex world
We use heuristics because cognitive limitations simply would not allow us to…
Make rational/sound choices all the time
What are four reasons why we use heuristics to help us make decisions?
1) Effort reduction
2) Attribute substitution
3) Fast/usually correct
4) Consistently associated with good results
How can heuristics lead to stereotypes and prejudice?
We tend to oversimplify
Overlook vital info
Why will heuristics sometimes produce errors?
Not designed to be accurate/reliable in every situation
Can heuristics lead to stereotyping and bias?
Yes
The difference between biases and mistakes are that mistakes are one-off, systematic errors, but biases are……
Making the wrong choice, for a reason
______ may be made because we are a) using a strategy optimised for a different environment b) using a different cost/benefit analysis
Systematic errors
Prospect theory assumes that…
Losses and gains are valued differently
Losses and gains are valued differently.
Which theory is this?^
Prospect Theory
According to Prospect Theory, do people make decisions based on perceived gains or perceived losses?
Perceived gains
Prospect Theory -
If two choices are put towards an individual, both equal, with one presented in terms of potential gains and the other in terms of losses, which one will be selected?
The gains option
Prospect Theory
Are low probabilities underweighted or overweighted?
Overweighted
Prospect Theory
Are high probabilities underweighted or overweighted?
Underweighted
Prospect Theory
People often prefer to gamble to _______
Avoid losses
What is anchoring?
Tendency to be biased towards starting value (the anchor)
A jury of individuals asked to consider a harsh verdict were harsher in their final decision than a jury of individuals asked to consider a lenient verdict
What heuristic is this an example of?
Anchoring
What is anchoring and adjustment? (Focus on adjustment)
Begin with anchor
Adjust accordingly
What is the representativeness heuristic?
Allocate set of attributes to someone if they match the prototype of that category
In a hospital, you look for someone wearing a white coat and stethoscope, as you believe this signifies ‘doctor’.
Which heuristic is this?
Representativeness
What (negative) can the representativeness heuristic lead to?
Stereotyping
Discrimination
What is the base rate fallacy?
Ignore statistical info in favour of representativeness info
Which fallacy is the representativeness heuristic prone to error because of?
Base rate fallacy
Bias can be driven by memory _____
errors
What is the availability heuristic?
Judging a situation based on its familiarity (similar situations that spring to mind)
What does the availability heuristic lead to individuals doing?
Extrapolating a different situation onto their own
You are on a plane, and feeling quite uneasy at the idea of the plane crashing. Your mind immediately springs to a headline you saw in the newspaper of a plane crash, which serves to fuel your anxiety.
What heuristic is this example of?
Availability heuristic
According to the availability heuristic, the examples that spring more easily to mind will be judged as…
More frequently occurring therefore more likely to happen
What is the recognition heuristic?
People infer that the recognised object//place/person has higher value
You want to travel to whichever city has the best nightlife. You have heard of Leeds, but you haven’t heard of Bristol. You therefore infer that Leeds must have the best nightlife.
What heuristic is this an example of?
Recognition heuristic
Which heuristic has been described as ecologically rational?
Recognition heuristic
Are we loss averse or risk averse?
Loss averse
What strategy do we use living in an uncertain world where we want to make quick decisions?
Heuristics
Why aren’t ‘perfect decisions always possible?’ (I, L)
Imperfect information
Limited resources
Why aren’t heuristics designed to be accurate/reliable for every situation?
Heuristics have broad applications
What 3 heuristics are referred to in Kahnem and Tversky’s paper?
Representativeness
Availability
Adjustment/anchoring
Kahnem and Tversky say representativeness, availability and adjustment/anchoring lead to….
A variety of biases
Words starting with K are judged as more frequent than words with K as the third letter.
This is an example of ^
Availability heuristic
We evaluate things by how typical they seem, e.g. tossing a coin (heads)
Which heuristic is this
Representativeness heuristic
What is the conjunction fallacy?
It is assumed multiple specific conditions are more probable than a single one
e.g. Linda must be a feminist and bank teller
You are asked how many sweets there are in a jar at a fair. You see someone else has guessed 400, so you guess 420. What is this an example of?
Anchoring and adjustment
Prospect Theory
When faced with a choice, a rational decision maker will prefer…
Prospect with highest expected utility
Prospect Theory
The value function is commonly ‘ ‘ Shaped
S
What is meant by expected utility
Value of an outcome X probability
What is meant by heuristics exploiting environmental structure?
If someone is consistently associated with a good option, use it as a shortcut
Biases are making the wrong choice, but
For a reason
Heuristic errors reveal normal mechanisms of ________
Reasoning
Someone might make a systematic error because they are
a) Using strategy optimised for diff environment
b) Considering different choices
C)….
Using a different cost/benefit analysis
a) Using a strategy for diff environment
b) Considering diff choices
c) Using a diff cost/benefit analysis
These are all reasons why someone might
Make a systematic error
A heuristic is _____, whereas rational thinking is _____ (speed)
Quick
Slow
Heuristics are automatic
T/F
True
Rational thinking is automatic
T/F
False
Rational thinking requires effort
T/F
True
Heuristics require effort
T/F
False
Heuristics are unconscious
T/F
True
Heuristics and rational thinking in relation to dual process theory…
Two processes
Can switch between modes in right circumstances
