reading 8 - ch. 16

Question 1

civil society

Answer 1

= the arena outside government within which citizens engage with one another to address public problems of shared concern

• the arena outside government within which citizens organize to address shared public problems
• crucial to the health of democracies
• increased fragmentation of communities + rise of intolerance and inequality endangers civil society

!interest groups are a crucial part of a healthy civil society

Question 2

interest groups
definition

Answer 2

= body that works outside gov. to influence public policy (also known as pressure group, advocacy group or non-gov org.)

• like pol. parties, they are crucial channel of comm. between society and government
• unlike pol. parties, they work to shape gov. in multiple ways WITHOUT becoming part of gov.

!!sometimes also known as non-governmental organizations (but this term is often also applied for other things)

Question 3

interest groups roles in demo. regimes

Answer 3

1. advocacy (promoting interest directly to gov. or indirectly via media)
2. education (public, media, policymakers about issues)
3. influence (public opinion and media)
4. mobilization (encouraging members to participate in pol. process)
5. watchdog (monitoring gov. work + whistle blowing)
6. service provision (complements gov. work or fills gaps left by gov.)

Question 4

non-governmental organization

Answer 4

• Dwight Morrow: came up with it to distinct IOs organized by govs and not organized by govs
• can be used to descr. interest groups

World Association of NGOs: any not-for-profit org. that isn’t established by a gov. entity or intergov. agreement + which is organized on a local, national, sub-regional, regional or international level

Question 5

social movements

Answer 5

= movement emerging from society to pursue non-establishment goals through non-institutionalized and often unconventional means

Typically more loosely organized than interest groups
Often with people taking part in pol. Activism for the first time
Often use non-institutionalized means to pursue their goals (sit-ins, boycotts, marches)

Like interest groups: goal to influence gov. Without becoming part of it

!sometimes hard to distinguish from interest groups + many social movements were founded on the work of interest groups (e.g. Feminism and environmentalism)

E.g.

-fair trade (higher prices + more sustainable trade developing world and developed world)
-chipko movement (against deforestation)
-anti-globalization
-landless workers (land reform + access for the poor)
-black lives matter
-#metoo

Question 5

Origins and evolution interest groups

Answer 5

Exist as long as organized gov. Exists
Earliest groups created to provide service not yet adressed by government (e.g. Helping the poor) or to bring together people with shared interests who wanted to make a joint case to the gov.

-e.g. Guilds of mediaval Europe C11-16 (merchant guilds + craft guilds)
-e.g. 1660 Royal Society of London (to promote excellence in science)

Modern era interest groups: industrial revo. -> interest groups to help the poor, campaign for change
+second half C19: labour unions

Growth in number and reach interest groups = linked to expansion democracy and pluralism

Question 6

pluralism

Answer 6

= tolerance for a diversity of ideas, views and values, as often represented in the dispersal of power among a variety of political, economic and social interests

• ideally interest groups represent all major sectors of society (level playing field, state little-no bias)

Question 7

lobbying

• definition
• why has it been on the rise?

Answer 7

= efforts to influence the decisions made by elected officials or bureaucrats on behalf of individuals, groups or organizations

• Crossick: getting the right message over to the right people in the right form at the right time on the right issue

*origins of the term: habit of citizens gathering in the lobby that separates British House of Commons and House of Lords

has been on the rise because:

1. gov. regulation continues to grow (specialist lobbying firm working for multiple interest groups can monitor proposed laws and regulations more efficiently)
   - public relations campaigns are becoming increasingly sophisticated (professional agencies as interest groups can’t manage directly)
   - many corporations now approach gov. directly rather than through their trade associations

Question 8

types of interest groups

Answer 8

Protective (aka sectional/functional) groups =
express focused material interests of members,
have restricted memberships, only work for their members, usually well established, connected and resourced

• economic = material economic interests
• institutional = public organizations that aren’t organized as interest groups (e.g. think tanks, government departments lobbying for funding)

Promotional (public/cause/advocacy/attitude/campaign) groups =
anyone can join, work on behalf of members and non-members, usually considered as outsiders by gov., growth in decent decades

• public = issue of general public concern (e.g. human rights, poverty, environment)
• cause = issues of more distinct and focused concern (e.g. religious, veterans, disabled, single-issues)

Question 9

peak association

Answer 9

= an umbrella organization representing the broad interests of business or labour to government

• have close links to gov. + strong research capacity + represent many people -> usually succeed in influencing policy

protective interest groups of specific industry often don’t only lobby directly, but also through a peak association

• e.g. wider body representing worker interest (for labour unions)
• e.g. Federal Organization of German Employers + German Trade Union Confederation
• e.g.Confederation of British Industry

Question 10

think tank

Answer 10

type of interest group

private organization set up to undertake research with a view to influencing both public and political debate

mostly privately funded, sometimes affiliated with gov., political parties or corporations

Question 11

channels of interest group influence

direct (4)
indirect (3)

Answer 11

direct on policy-makers

• executive: talking with ministers before policy is finalized
• bureaucracy: focusing on details (easier to change)
• legislature: lobbying legislators with goal of influencing their views and votes on law and policy (importance of this depends on how big the role/power of legislators is)
• courts: used to launch legal challenges

indirect on public opinion: goal to aggregate public interest in a way that brings indirect pressure

• parties (exclusive links with parties are declining: parties becoming broader and interest groups more specialized)
• traditional media: paid advertising and favourable news coverage
• social media: direct engagement with public

Question 12

interest group influence on bureaucrats

Answer 12

= important: bureaucrats determine the details of policy (which are easier to influence than broad policies)

extent to which groups can influence bureaucrats = dpendent on:

• responsiveness of bureaucrats
• role and power of bureaucrats
• exploitation of opportunities
• extent to which issues matter to citizens and governments (issue salience)

!it can be a two-way street: interest groups can provide information in return for a listening ear

Question 13

iron triangle + issue networks

Answer 13

= policy-influencing relationship involving interest groups, the bureaucracy and legislative committees, and a three-way trading of information, favours and support

!figure 16.2

*groups have privileged access to power, can be convenient for corruption

insider relationship between:

• interest groups
• legislatures
• bureaucracies

!not always the case, they can also be related in a different way than the iron triangle)

!!recently: iron trangles’ hold is smaller due to media attention etc.

e.g. Japan: public policy more from bargaining iron triangle than from electoral competition

issue networks: more open and transparent iron triangles + wider range of interests take part in decisions, less biases towards protective groups

Question 14

qualities that determine the hierarchy of influence of interest groups
(shaping the dynamic of interest groups)

5

Answer 14

• legitimacy: interests with high prestige or moral authority get most influence (e.g. more influence interest groups that want modest reforms than groups that look for radical change)
• membership: size, commitment and density
• resources they can bring to bear to their job, incl. expertise
• ability to invoke sanctions (e.g. strike by labor union, encouraging boycotts)
• the place of groups in the state system (e.g. corporatism)

Question 15

corporatism

Answer 15

idea that interest groups should have direct association with governments: that they are involved directly in negotiation and settlement of policy problems

• emphasizes shared needs and interests of a political community

= ultimate form of privileged access of interest groups

!corporatism in autocracies = gov./state controls over groups

e.g. Economic and Social Council in NL made up of representatives from unions and employer organizations + gov.-appointed experts, gives advice to gov.
e.g. ECOSOC UN
e.g. Ireland upper chamber of parliament

Question 15

interest groups in authoritarian regimes

examples

Answer 15

• Venezuela: there are interest groups exposing gov. wrongdoing, but leaders, members, family is threatened and abused + can be prosecuted
• China: communist party banned interest group activity (exc. mass organizations led by party officials), later something like civil society but under the party’s control (+ smaller (freeer) local groups that engage with the state on a smaller level)
• Russia: manipulation national Civic Chamber (designed to give citizens a voice), state works with favored groups

Question 16

interest groups in authoritarian regimes

Answer 16

= nuanced position: there is close control over them, but they can also lead to an opening for civic engagement (e.g. operating locally)

Civicus:

• only 3% of population lives in countries with fully open civic space (rest: narrowed, obstructed, repressed or closed civic space)
• restriction of civic space has become the norm rather than exception
• Covid measures used by autocrats to strengthen their power

Rulers see freely organized groups as a potential threat to their power -> work to repress them or incorporate them into their power structure

• corporatism in a way that gov. influences civil society (e.g. in China, Cuba, SU)
• some interest groups go along with the interests of authoritarian rulers

!!service providing groups (incl. international) have debated/disputed influence to promote social and political dev.

+ often local people organize efforts to provide services = aimed at mobilizing or working for change without posing direct threat to gov.
(e.g. Green Belt Movement Kenya, which was for planting trees, but also for planting ideas ab. rights + is expanding: now promoting democratic space in Kenya)

!social movements are often present, focus on mobilization of the poor + marginalized, focused on local/personal level (e.g. soupkitchens, but also democr. movements during Arab Spring)

Question 17

roles of interest groups in authoritarian regimes
4

Answer 17

• control: incorporating civil society into the gov. system
• propaganda: socializing voters to support the regime
• patronage: leaders offer rewards to members of friendly groups in return for support
• service provision: aimed at improving quality of life, incl. education and health care

Question 18

(density)

Answer 18

= the proportion of all those eligible to join a group who actually do so

• the higher the density, the stronger a group’s authority and bargaining position