chapter 8 - executives Flashcards
roles of executives in democratic regimes
7
- Representation = interests of voters in gov., and of the state in dealing with other govs.
- Execution = overseeing (through the bureaucracy) the execution of laws and policies, and the maintenance of law and order
- Making policy = defining the policy priorities and interests of gov.
- Leadership = providing the overall direction taken by a gov. and a state
- Appointments = to other senior position in gov.
- Security = defending and preserving the unity and integrity of the state, in the face of domestic and external threat
- Crisis response = leading the response of the government to political, security, public safety and natural crises
executive
= political institution responsible for overseeing the execution of laws and policies, and most often associated with the idea of national leadership
incl. prime ministers, presidents, cabinets, government ministers, governors of states, mayors
!important to distinguish temporary political executives from career bureaucrats that put policy into effect (are public employees)
executives have constrains (e.g. re-elections, public opinion surveys, media coverage), but less in authoritarian regimes
!executives don’t make laws (legislators do) and don’t interpret them (judiciary does)
types of executives
- presidential
- parliamentary
- semi-presidential
- authoritarian
head of state vs head of gov.
- head of state = representative of the state
figurehead or ceremonial leader of a state, who may be elected or appointed, or may have inhereted the position (monarchs) - head of government =
elected leader of a gov. who comes to office because of the support of voters who identify with their party and platform
presidential executives (e.g. US, Mexico, Nigeria): combined head of state and government
parliamentary system:
- head of gov. is an elected prime minister or councilor
- head of state in republics = non-executive presidents elected through a popular vote (Ireland), parliament (Israel), or by a special electoral college
- head of state in constitutional monarchy = king/queen (e.g. NL, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, UK, Andorra, Monaco)
*presidential executives: two parts combined in one office (so head of state and gov.)
- e.g. US, Mexico, Nigeria
semi-presidential systems = president + prime minister, president can act as head of state and of gov. (if he has popular support and support in legislature)
republic
political system in which all members of the gov. are elected or appointed by elected officials
aka there is no monarch
Constitutional Monarchy
state headed by a monarch, but where the monarch’s powers are severely limited by constitutional rules
presidential executives
= arrangement in which the executive and the legislature are separately and directly elected and have separate powers and responsibilities
e.g. Afghanistan, US, most of Latin America, Nigeria, Indonesia, Philippines
- single person governs using authority derived from popular election alongside an independent legislature
- often limits on amount of terms that can be served
- president functions as head of state and government
- winner-take-all arrangement + no opposition like in parliamentary systems, BUT president’s party often minority in legislature, therefore president works in a political minority (kind of having to govern in a coalition)
- usually president elected separately from legislature
strengths of presidential executives:
- fixed term provides continuity in the executive, avoiding potential instability of coalitions
- winning presidential elections requires dev. widespread support across a country
- elected by the whole country, president rises above squabbles between local interests represented in the legislature
- separation of powers encourages limited government
*South Africa: president/officeholder elected by members of the legislature rather than in a direct national vote
'’president pursues a national agenda, distinct from the special and local interest of the legislature -> requirement for the executive to negotiate = triumph of deliberation over dictatorship’’
US president
- has additional explicit duties that have been interpreted as giving presidents additional implied powers (e.g. to issue executive orders)
hands are often tied because they share important powers with Congress:
- only Congress can declare war
- president can make gov. appointments and sign treaties ONLY with consent of the Senate
- president can veto legislation, Congress can override the veto
- Congress, not the president, controls purse strings
separation of powers
arrangement in which executive, legislature and judiciary are given distinct but complementary sets of powers, such that none can govern alone and that all should, ideally govern together
- executives lead and execute
- legislatures make law
- courts adjudicate
parliamentary executives
= arrangement in which the executive emerges from the legislature, remains a member of it, remains accountable to it and must maintain a working legislative majority in order to remain in office
- parliamentary executive is originally linked to the legislature (head of gov. is head of largest party in legislatures + usually holds seat in the legislature)
- prime ministers/chancellor/premier: can be removed after losing vote of confidence + can call for new elections
- unlimited number of terms in office
- executive is collegial, usually in form of a cabinet
- have a cabinet
*power of ex. depends on party balance in legislature
- majority gov. = one party wins clear majority (often in Britain) -> prime ministers strong position
- coalition gov. = multiple parties work together to get a majority
- minority gov. (can also be min. coa.) = party governs whilst in minority
coalition gov.
= gov. is formed through an agreement involving two or more political parties which divide gov. posts between them
- majority coalition = 2 parties control a majority of seats = most stable
- coalitions with more/smaller parties -> less stable
- minority coalition = partner parties lack majority = least stable
!! in some elections coalitions are promised/arranged before the elections so that voters know the consequences of their votes
*coalition govs. are the norm in continental Europe
cabinet
= body consisting of the heads of the major gov. departments, is more important in parliamentary than in presidential systems
- aka council of ministers
- main point of contact between executive and bureaucracy
- most gov. ministers are also members of legislature
models of parliamentary gov.
- Prime ministerial = dominant figure, deals directly with individual ministers (who are followers)
*e.g. Germany, UK - cabinet = discussion in cabinet determines overall policy, ministers are team players
*e.g. Finland - ministerial = individual ministers operate with little direction from the prime minister or cabinet. the ministers are the leaders
*e.g. Italy, Japan, NL
!ministerial gov. = ministers owe more loyalty to their party than to the prime minister or the cabinet, the prime minister’s status is diminished
semi-presidential systems
= elected president co-exists with an appointed prime minister and separately elected legislature
- elected president + prime minister and cabinet
- prime minister is appointed by the president, but req. support of majority of the legislature
- ~24 countries
-cohabitation when president doesn’t have majority in legislature and thus has to work with opposition (usually app. Opposition as prime minister)
usually president responsible for oversight, foreign and eco. affairs + prime minister resp. for day-to-day domestic gov.
head of state = president
head of gov. = president + prime minister
2 subtypes
1.Premier-presidential system: president elected, selects prime minister who heads a cabinet, legislature has sole power to dismiss the prime minister and cabinet
*e.g. Finland, France, Poland
2.presidential-parliamentary system: prime minister and cabinet answer to both president and legislature
*e.g. Russia
cohabitation
= when presidency is held by a member of one party and the legislature is controlled by another party
*found in semi-presidential systems
