reading 3 (ch. 4 and 13)

Question 1

political culture

• definition
• key features

Answer 1

the relationship that communities have with politics and government: what members of the communities expect of gov. + what they regard as normal and abnormal + how they define the purposes of gov.

key features =

• limits: not always generalizable (often subcultures in communities, so NOT: one country, one pol.cult.)
• measurement = hard to identify or quantify
• changeabiity = culture isn’t static
• complexity = multiple cultures rather than universal cultures

political culture comes close to ‘mentalities’: ways of thinking and feeling, more emotional than rational (Linz)

Question 2

civic culture

Answer 2

• Almond and Verba 1960s

specific form of political culture where most citizens accept the authority of the state and believe in civic participation + includes expectation of fair government, talking freely about politics, tolerance towards opposition and civic cooperation and trust

= the ideal when it comes to how democracies should work

Almond & Verba: ideal conditions for democracy are combination participant culture + low levels of participation (people can act when needed)

Question 3

elite political culture

Question 4

challenges to the idea of a dominant national political culture

Answer 4

much of what we associate with a society is not a dominant pol.cult., but actually elite pol. cult.

challenges to the idea of dominant national pol.cult. =

• multiculturalism
  1. identity (encourages societies to recognize diversity)
  *can also be used by members perceived elite pol.cult. to divide
  2. globalization (emphasizes commonalities, but also challenges traditional identities, making them reacting/changing to each other)

Question 5

post-Materialism

Answer 5

Ronald Inglehart

= concept to distinguish old materialist interest in eco growth and security (pre 1970s) from the new focus on quality-of-life issues such as environmental protection, nuclear disarmament, gender equality, and freedom of expression

shift = silent revolution due to affluence, peace and security Western political structures

*is a type of pol. cult.

Question 6

from cultures to civilizations

Answer 6

Huntington: cultures rather than countries would become the leading source of political conflict 21st century + end of cold war would mean shift in focus from a battle of ideologies to a clash of civilizations -> pol. cult. has escaped national moorings to embrace wider identities

identified 7 or 8 civilizations with contradictory worldviews with little room for compromise

!this thesis was widely criticized: where do we see these grand clashes + criticism portrayal of permanent conflict western and islam (+defining these two as homogenous)

Question 7

(Inglehart-Welzel cultural map of the world)

Answer 7

example of global-scale analysis of pol.cult.

2 dimensional graph with countries plotted based on 2 scales:

• traditional (emphasizes religion) to secular-rational
• survival (eco. and physical security) to self-expression (post-materialism)

based on this they made a division of the world based on 9 types (= criticized for being an based on an uncomfortable combination of religion, geography and language for the grouping of his 9 types)

Question 8

political trust

Answer 8

belief that government and political systems made competent decisions + that government works for the general good of society

• high in the 60s, since 90s it has been falling (not just in western democracies)

Edelman research findings trust (in gov., business, media, non-gov. org):

• big influence = income inequality
• people worry about being left behind + losing respect and dignity
• people worry about losing jobs
• worry about rapid changes technology
• worry about contamination of media with information that could not be trusted
• gov. was seen as least competent and ethical

Question 9

political culture in authoritarian regimes
- example

Answer 9

• e.g. Syria, Russia

Khatib: ruling elites Arab world often insist that they are the state and that their continuation in power is essential to the stability of the state

!little research on pol. cult. in auth. regimes

broad difference democratic and authoritarian regimes may be:

• Democratic = pluralistic civic culture with emphasis on self-expression (Verba and Almond)
• Authoritarian = cultural emphasis among their populations on security (Welzel and Inglehart, they also argue that if democracy arises it may be unstable: there are no/little democrats)

people tend to admire strong leadership (e.g. Russia ‘burden of history’: people remember ‘‘glory’’ USSR)

Islamic countries: authoritarian rulers draw from religion + see democracy as western concept
!!this makes democracy and authoritarian as opposite cultural traditions

Question 10

political participation

• conventional and unconventional

Answer 10

actions by individuals intended to influence government and the action it takes

• conventional = within formal political processes and the law (e.g. voting, posting on insta)
• unconventional = takes place outside formal political processes or even the law (e.g. demonstrations, boycotts, terrorism)

*distinction is increasingly blurry due to changing views definition + growing options for participation (Theocaris and van Deth point to risk of conceptual stretching political participation)
- e.g. is there less participation, or are people participating in other (more unconventional ways?)

Question 11

forms of political participation

Answer 11

more conventional =

• voting
• joining or donating to political parties or interest groups
• contacting elected representatives
• signing petitions
• online participation / clicktivism (e.g. sharing tweets or hashtags, signing online petitions)
• volunteering in campaigns
• running elections
• engaging with social movements
• organizing community campaigns
• attending political rallies or meetings
• raising money for candidates, parties or causes
• running for elected office

more unconventional =

• peaceful demonstrations, protests or walkouts
• organizing or taking part in boycotts

illegal =

• civil disobedience
• occupation of buildings or public spaces
• sabotaging efforts of parties, candidates or elected officials
• hacktivism
• politically motivated crime
• political violence, incl. terrorism and assassination

Question 12

why do we participate politically?

Answer 12

2 perspectives:

1. involvement in collective decision-making is an obligation owed to the community and an exercise of personal development (dates back to ancient Greeks)
2. people are not naturally political animals + higher participation does not necessarily point to a healthier democracy, but may point to unresolved tensions within a political system

5 influences:

• idealism: believing in democracy + wanting to protect what is important or to bring about change
• responsibility: feeling a civic responsibility to take part
• being heard: wanting to be counted as part of the potential solution
• mobilization: encouraged by parties or political leaders
• enjoyment: participating for social reasons, engagement with the community, or the thrill of the competition

Question 13

patterns of participation

Answer 13

• striking = how little most people in democracies engage with politics outside of voting
• participation is higher among older, better-educated, upper-income citizens: have more resources (knowledge, time, persuasive skill and political interest (satisfaction from engagement as they don’t have to fight the daily struggle)
• ! in this time, political spectatorship might/could/should perhaps also be seen as form of participation
• apathetics: might be because they feel they have nothing to gain from participating OR might be because of political exclusion

metaphor Milbrath and Goel: Gladiators (5-7% fights political battles) + Spectators (watch pol. dev. but only participate through voting ~60%) + Apathetics (avoid formal politics ~35%)

Question 14

political exclusion

Answer 14

phenomenon by which some - eg. the poor, minorities, unemployed - are discouraged from taking part in collective decision-making because of their marginal position in society

Question 15

paradox of participation

Answer 15

idea that voting is an irrational act given time and effort involved and the minimal chance that any one vote can make a difference

(rational choice)

Question 16

voting

+ influences on voter choice

Answer 16

• in democracies : single participatory act from which almost all other political activities flow
• authoritarian regimes : voting doesn’t tell much, it is used as a mans of controlling voters and of co-opting the elite and opposition

four influences/factors on voter choice =

1. social class (working class left, middle class center-right) = in decline
2. the economy (gov. loses votes when eco. is bad, gains votes when it’s good) = economic voting
3. issues (issue voting : voting based on policies that most interest them) = rising importance
   (requires: being aware of the issue, having an opinion, believing parties differ on the issue, vote for the party closest to your opinion)
4. religion (secular vs religious voters, different religions represented + more or less importance of religion in the lives of voters) = continuing importance even with secularization (declining space occupied by religion in political, social and personal life)

Question 17

economic voting

Answer 17

= theory that there is a strong correlation between voter choice and the state of the economy : if eco. is good, gov. receives more votes + if eco. is bad, gov. loses votes

paradox: poorer voters often vote for parties that don’t appear to stand for their material interests (e.g. people voted Trump, while his policies were designed to cut tax burdens on the rich etc.)

Question 18

vote buying

Answer 18

= the provision by parties and candidates of goods and benefits to voters in return for their support at elections

• e.g. bringing commodities or cash or services to communities (e.g. use effort to place a school, factory or military facility)
• ! can also be governments legally buying votes of other governments in IO meetings

Question 19

(secularization )

Answer 19

declining space occupied by religion in political, social and personal life

Question 20

public opinion

Answer 20

= the range of views held on an issue of public concern by the members of an affected community

a case can be made that public opinion is a more powerful influence on political decisions than elections: they are measured continuously + politicians watch them closely

• can be measured with opinion polls and sample surveys
• often can accurately predict election outcomes (although now it becomes harder: declining turnout at elections, changes in tech, voters changing their minds at the last minute, falling response rates to surveys)
• it is crucial that respondents to polls are carefully selected to represent the whole community

!danger with polls and surveys is that they might help construct the public opinions they claim they are measuring

public opinion can act as:

• prompt: public opinion demands we do…
• veto: public opinion would never accept …

Question 21

political participation in authoritarian regimes

Answer 21

= NOT an empty concept in non-democratic settings (authoritarian regimes seek to control popular activity in order to ensure and maintain their power)

understanding political participation in authoritarian regimes is hard, e.g. because of difficulties measuring public opinion:

• poorer countries: focus on survival, limited education and communication -> little public opinion beyond local matters
• unclear how to define a representative sample
• urban elites easiest to reach -> are sampled more = wrong picture
• people may be unfamiliar or uncomfortable with formal interviewing techniques

conventional political participation varies among authoritarian regimes

limits and nature of participation are often subject to opponents and activists testing the boundaries of the acceptable

voting = often restricted choice (e.g. lack of info, less options, coercion)

leaders may monitor and follow public opinion on non-sensitive issues (gains them support)

Question 22

patronage vs clientelism

+ patron-client relationship

Answer 22

patronage = the provision of public resources in return for political support

clientelism = provision of material goods in return for electoral support

!clientelism is a form of patronage linked to ELECTORAL support

patron-client relationship = informal hierarchical relationship between political patrons and their clients, based on favors in return for support (seen in all political systems, but of greater political significance in authoritarian regimes)
- ! these relationships can overwhelm and underpin more formal channels of participation

Question 23

mobilized participation

Answer 23

= elite-controlled involvement in politics, designed to express popular support for the regime

= often found in authoritarian regimes

• e.g. people encouraged to participate by offering rewards or threatening them to participate
• e.g. North Korea: military parades + public displays of enthusiasm for Kim Jong Un

Question 24

political violence

Answer 24

= violence perpetrated by people or governments for political ends

• e.g. Nigeria: many deaths due to political violence (large, divided and volatile society where voters identify with religion and ethnicity)
• e.g. Kenya during elections political violence (ethnically divided + long tensions between two main groups: Kikuuyu and Luo)

Question 25

rational choice, political participation and authoritarian regimes

Answer 25

would expect: high risk of poltical violence = high cost of participation -> less people participate

in practice: the greater the response of an authoritarian regime to opposition, the more likelihood that citizens will step up to be heard

• e.g Iran now

Question 26

in summary pol. part. democracies vs authoritarian regimes

Answer 26

• many similarities in the channels available for participation
• effects of authoritarian rule often less telling than the effects of poverty or urban-rural divide as a way of explaining the differences in how they are used
• much overlap in the way that democratic and authoritarian regimes encourage and limit participation
• limits to participation are subject to tighter political and legal scrutiny in democracies than in authoritarian regimes

!the desire for ordinary people to express themselves varies little form one political system to another

Question 27

voter turnout

Answer 27

= the number of voters who take part in elections, expressed as a percentage of the total number of eligible voters

• rates vary by time, average in most democracies 50-70%
• little correlation between political status of a country and turnout levels
• trend over time = turnout rates falling since 1950s in most democracies (possible causes: declining satisfaction in gov. performance + sense that voting doesn’t lead to change)
• high turnout = associated with healthy civic engagement OR over-intense party competition OR political division OR deep concern direction gov. takes

debated whether or not we should care about low voter turnouts, given that people can participate through different means

!turnout is reduced when voters have to take initiative, e.g. by registering (e.g. US) + lower when it is in-person during a week-day
! higher turnout e.g. when people can vote in advance of election day

proportional representation is the most effective electoral system in terms of encouraging turnout: clear benefits of voting
- single-member plurality system = least: districts are often safe for certain parties, meaning that individual votes have little effect