Quiz 1 Flashcards
What is Science?
Science is the organized systematic enterprise that gathers data about the world and condenses the knowledge into testable laws and principles
The Scientific Method
an approach to solving problems
emphasizing gathering data
Statement of the problem
good questions make good science
- need somewhere to start
- determines what data you want
Gather Data
anything you can observe or measure
-needs to repeatable ..Shouldn’t matter who observes
Develop Hypotheses
Models that explain the data
-develop as many as possible -testable and repeatable
Deductive reasoning
If A=B, and B=C, then C=A
Inductive reasoning
generalization based on repetitive observation
Occam’s Razor
The simplest explanation that fits the data is most likely to be correct
Test the hypotheses
By trying to prove them wrong by making predictions .. then looking for new data ..If you can’t prove it wrong… present it to other scientists they try prove it wrong if they can’t - hypotheses is “promoted” to…scientific theory
Scientific Theory
a well-tested hypothesis Not just an idea, but an idea that has stood up to rigorous testing by many workers
Scientific Theory must be
- independently confirmed
- must predict outcomes consistently
- should have broad implications
Scientific Paradigm
a very well tested theory that has almost universal acceptance by scientific
What are the leading paradigms for geology?
- Geologic time
- plate tectonics
- Evolution
In the real world….
- no formal rules
- works by consensus
- you publish your data and ideas -and they are accepted and used….. or they are not!
- scientists are professional skeptics
How old is the Earth?
4.6 Billion years old Time Scale
What are the four geological eras from oldest to newest?
Precambrian, Paleozoic, mesozoic & Cenozoic
Precambrian
Nothing but shells, there was life
Paleozoic
The era began with the breakup of one supercontinent and the formation of another. Plants became widespread. And the first vertebrate animals colonized land.
Paleo means….
OLD
Mesozoic
Middle life, dinosaurs, mammals are small, age of dinosaurs
Cenozoic
Cenozoic Era Facts
The Cenozoic Era is the last major division in time, beginning 65.5 million years ago and continuing until today. (RECENT)
The Cenozoic Era is also referred to as the Age of Mammals as mammals began to rule the earth following the extinction of dinosaurs in the Mesozoic Era.
Origin of the earth
- Rotating interstellar cloud
- Suns forms in center
- Planets form by accretion
Origin of the Ocean
- Water locked in minerals
- Water from comets
The shape of the earth
Approximately a sphere but flattened so thicker at equator
Highest point on earth
High: Mt. Everest 8,840 m
Lowest point on earth
Low: Mariana Trench -11,000 m
Radius of the planet
6,371,000 m
Another name for our earth is…..
Planet Oceanus
What’s the % of water & land on the earth?
71% water and 29% land
Earth is unevenly distributed
- Northern Hemisphere 1:1
- Southern Hemisphere 5:1
What’s the largest water basin on earth?
Pacific Ocean (most area) -Largest,deepest & oldest
Atlantic Ocean (w/Arctic Ocean)
- shallowest, youngest
Indian Ocean
-smallest, but deeper than Atlantic
Map Projections
- Earth is round, maps are flat
- “Project” feature onto paper wrap paper from center
Equatorial Cylindrical Projection
- Wrap a cylinder around earth
- so accurate near the equator
- distorted near poles
Longitiude
- Run from pole to pole (vertical lines)
- Always the same length (LONGitude)
Extra Longititude facts
- Measured from the Prime Meridian, 0
- Royal Naval Observatory, Greenwich, England
- Measured East and West
- 180 = Int Dateline
Latitude (horizontal lines)
- Parallel to the equator
- Get smaller N and S until just a point of pole
- Measured Degrees from equator
The division of oceanography that concerns the study of ocean waves and currents is _______
Q1
Marine Physics
What is the first step in the scientific method ________
Q1
State the question you want to investigate
Which ocean has the least area
Q1
Indiana Area
The winter solstice is
Q1
the shortest day of the year
The part of the earth from 30 to 60N and 30 to 60S is referred to as _______
Q1
Middle Latitude
Plate Tectonics
- Leading paradigm of geology
- Surface of earth is plates ; and the plates move
Where is the north american plate
the Mid-Atlantic ridge
The interior of the earth
- layered based on, composition (because of different density) …This means heavy things sinked & light things floats
- Earth has a core(inner and outer core), mantle and crust
Inner core (solid)
- composes of Iron, Nickel … The density is 13gm/cm3
- It’s as hot as the sun & the size of the moon
Outer Core (liquid)
- composes of.. iron and nickel
- The outer core is the third layer of the earth
–The only liquid layer
Mantle
- is bond with Fe (iron) Mg is Magnesum silicates
- second layer
- largest layer
The Mantle has two parts:
Upper mantle and lower mantle
Upper mantle is attached to the crust. Together the crust and upper mantle forms the lithosphere .
oceanic crust
the part of the outer rocky layer of the earth that is under the oceans
(iron magnesium)Fe-Mg silicates (3.0 gm/ cm3) -basalt
Continental Crust
the surface of the earth that is about 35 kilometres thick and includes the land masses and the solid rock below them
- Al-mg(Aluminium magnesium) silicates (2.67 gm/cm 3)
- average granite
How do we know the layers?
-Earthquakes sends off energy
Inside of the earth in order:
inner core, outer core, mantle, crust
PLATES ARE NOT THE CRUST, T/F
TRUE
Behavioral layers
- Lithosphere = rock (rigid) Layer
- Crust + upper mantle =plates
Asthenosphere
=SOFT ductile layer
-Part of the mantle, flows (probably 1 or 2% liquid…..so it slips easier)
what kind of boundaries can we have?
Divergent boundaries Convergent boundaries Transform boundaries
Divergent
part from each other
geographic features
Transform boundaries
—————>
The former, late Paleozoic supercontinent is known as
Pangea
chemical oceanography
marine chemistry
physical oceanography
marine physics
biologic oceanography
marine biology
What key line of evidence was predicted by the Theory of Plate Tectonics and later found by drilling in the deep ocean basins?
The age of the oceanic crust increases with distance from spreading centers.
abyssal plain is
the almost flat floor of a major ocean basin.
the most remote areas on the planet, so we really don’t know all that much about them.
Sediment that is eroded of the continents is _____ sediment.
lithogenous
Large gravel-sized rocks that are transported by icebergs and deposited in deep water are
dropstones
summer solstice
the longest day of the year.
what kind of plate boundary is present and what features tell you this?
Mid-Atlantic ridge,
East Pacific Rise
East Pacific Rise : divergent boundary between two oceanic plates
what kind of plate boundary is present and what features tell you this?
Himalayan Mountains, the Alps (Europe),Appalachian Mountains, San Andreas Fault, mid-oceanic ridge offsets
Himalayan Moutains; continent to continent collison
Water moves directly from the __________ to the _____________ by evaporation.
oceans, atmosphere
The compositional layer between the outer core and the crust:
The Mantle
Which of the following would NOT be considered data?
a. ) The theory of Plate Tectonics
b) the temperature of sea water
c) the distance between Chicago and macomb
d) the height of mt.Everest
e) ) All of the above are considered data
The theory of Plate Tectonics
The spring equinox occurs in the month of ___________ in the northern hemisphere and the month of ___________ in the southern hemisphere.
March; September
what kind of plate boundary is present and what features tell you this?
Himalayan Mountains, the Alps (Europe),Appalachian Mountains, San Andreas Fault, mid-oceanic ridge offsets
Himalayan Moutains; continent to continent collison
San Andreas Fault:transform fault
Which type of sediment is the greatest contributor, on a world scale, to the sediments of coastal regions?
lithogenous
The Mariana Trench is a place where the Pacific Plate is
being subducted
In surface waters, you find two kinds of sediment: lithogenous at a sedimentation rate of 500 cm/1000 yrs and biogenous at 10 cm/1000 yr. What will the main sediment be on the sea floor in this location?
lithogenous
The list with the geologic eras listed in order of decreasing (oldest first) age.
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic.
calcareous ooze occur
mainly along mid-oceanic ridges
siliceous ooze
biogenous
Which layer of the earth is the smallest (thinnest) and contains the least amount of material?
crust
In surface waters, you find two kinds of sediment: lithogenous at a sedimentation rate of 500 cm/1000 yrs and biogenous at 10 cm/1000 yr. What will the main sediment be on the sea floor in this location?
lithogenous
Sedimentation rate is: the rate sediments accumulate on the sea bottom.
Which location has the youngest oceanic crust?
Along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, near Iceland.
What geographic features are found at a divergent plate margin?
mid-oceanic ridges
The volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands are caused by
a long-lived hot spot below the Pacific Plate lithosphere.
A map made from an equatorial cylindrical projection shows greatest distortion
at high latitudes.
The top of Mount Everest in the Himalayan Mountains is composed of marine limestone. How did the marine fossils get there?
The former sea floor was pushed up by the collision of India with Asia.
Pick the TRUE statement:
A) Oceanic trenches are hot with active submarine volcanism.
B) The oceanic crust is the same age everywhere.
C) The Hawaiian Islands sit on top of a mid-oceanic ridge.
D) The mid-oceanic ridges are hot with active submarine volcanism.
E) The oldest seafloor occurs near the mid-oceanic ridges.
D) The mid-oceanic ridges are hot with active submarine volcanism.
In the ocean, the particle size of lithogenous sediments generally __________ with distance from shore.
A) decreases
Where would you find the fastest sedimentation rate?
Near the mouth of a large river like the Mississippi River
The part of the earth from 60˚ to 90˚N and 60˚ to 90˚S is referred to as
high latitude.
Why is the oldest oceanic crust much younger than the oldest continental crust?
subduction destroys old oceanic crust but continental crust is never subducted.
Which of the following reservoirs has the most water in it?
glaciers
prime meridian
a planet’s meridian adopted as the zero of longitude.
equator
an imaginary line drawn around the earth equally distant from both poles, dividing the earth into northern and southern hemispheres and constituting the parallel of latitude 0°.
evaporation
is the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor.
condensation
is the process by which water vapor in the air is changed into liquid water
Responsible for the formation of clouds
precipitation
is water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or hail. It is the primary connection in the water cycle that provides for the delivery of atmospheric water to the Earth. Most precipitation falls as rain.
Autumn equinox
the equinox in autumn, on about September 22 in the northern hemisphere and March 20 in the southern hemisphere.
Antarctic Circle
is - the parallel of latitude that is approximately 661/2 degrees south of the equator and that circumscribes the southern frigid zone.
Arctic Circle
is - the parallel of latitude that is approximately 661/2 degrees north of the equator and that circumscribes the northern frigid zone.
Tropic of Cancer
- the northern tropic 2. a line of latitude at 23.5’ north of the equator, and the farthest north that the sun appears directly above.
Tropic of Capricorn
a line of latitude at 23°.5’ south of the equator, and the farthest south that the sun appears directly above
temperate
.latitudes of the Earth lie between the subtropics and the polar circles. Average yearly temperatures in these regions are not extreme, not burning hot nor freezing cold.
Density
density is defined as the mass of a substance per unit volume
lithosphere
the rigid outer part of the earth, consisting of the crust and upper mantle.
seismic waves
is an elastic wave generated by an impulse such as an earthquake or an explosion.
Know the locations of the following plates:
North American Plate Pacific Plate South American Plate African Plate Antarctica Plate Eurasian Plate Nazca Plate
look at an image on google
seafloor spreading
a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge.
mid-oceanic ridge
an underwater mountain system formed by plate tectonics. It consists of various mountains linked in chains, typically having a valley known as a rift running along its spine.
spreading center
the linear boundary between two diverging lithospheric plates on the ocean floor.
found in all the ocean basins. In the Arctic Ocean
magma
s a mixture of molten and semi-molten rock found beneath the surface of the Earth
rift valley
a linear shaped lowland between several highlands or mountain ranges created by the action of a geologic rift or fault. A rift valley is formed on a divergent plate boundary, a crustal extension or spreading apart of the surface, which is subsequently further deepened by the forces of erosion.
volcano
is a rupture in the Earth’s crust which allows magma/ash/gases to escape from beneath the surface.
convergent boundary
here two plates are moving toward each other.
subduction zone
he biggest crash scene on Earth. These boundaries mark the collision between two of the planet’s tectonic plates.
trench
The oceanic trenches are hemispheric-scale long but narrow topographic depressions of the sea floor.
volcanic arc
A usually curved chain of volcanoes occurring on the overriding tectonic plate of a subduction zone, formed by magma that rises from the melting of the descending plate.
collision zone
occurs when tectonic plates meeting at a convergent boundary both bearing continental lithosphere.
collision mountains
is a phenomenon of the plate tectonics of Earth that occurs at convergent boundaries
transform fault
type of fault in which two tectonic plates slide past one another.
continental drift
was a theory that explained how continents shift position on Earth’s surface. Set forth in 1912 by Alfred Wegener, a geophysicist and meteorologist, continental drift also explained why look-alike animal and plant fossils, and similar rock formations, are found on different continents.
sea-floor spreading
a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge.
hot spots (mantle plumes)
a hotspot is a location on the Earth’s surface that has experienced active volcanism for a long period of time.
mid-ocean ridges
is an underwater mountain system formed by plate tectonics. It consists of various mountains linked in chains, typically having a valley known as a rift running along its spine.
seamount chain
a submarine mountain rising several hundred fathoms above the floor of the sea but having its summit well below the surface of the water.
continental slope
the comparatively steep slope from a continental shelf to the ocean floor.
continental rise
the gently sloping transition between the continental slope and the deep ocean floor,
continental shelf
a portion of a continent that is submerged under an area of relatively shallow water known as a shelf sea
passive continental margin
margins develop along coastlines that are not tectonically active, including much of the Atlantic Ocean coastline.
active continental margin
Active continental margins are those that are tectonically active, such as along much of the Pacific coast.
biogenous
sediments consisting of large amounts of skeletal remains of macroscopic and microscopic organisms or remains of organic production
hydrogenous
sediments are formed directly from seawater.
cosmogenous
sediments, which come from space.
Sand
is a granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt.
Mud
is a liquid or semi-liquid mixture of water and any combination of different kinds of soil (loam, silt, and clay). It usually forms after rainfall or near water sources.
Gravel
A loose accumulation of rock fragments composed predominantly of more or less rounded pebbles and small stones.
settling velocity
The rate at which suspended solids subside and are deposited.
rivers
a natural and continuous flow of water in a long line across a country into the sea
glaciers
is a huge mass of ice that moves slowly over land.
icebergs
is a large mass of free-floating ice that has broken away from a glacier.
dropstones
is a large mass of free-floating ice that has broken away from a glacier.
dust storms
a windstorm that whips up clouds of dust.
turbidity current
a rapid, downhill flow of water caused by increased density due to high amounts of sediment.
submarine canyon
a steep-sided valley cut into the seabed of the continental slope, sometimes extending well onto the continental shelf
submarine fan
accumulation of land-derived sediment on the deep seafloor;
calcium carbonate
is fairly soft (you can scratch it with a nail) and quite soluble.
calcareous ooze
as the name implies, oozes between your fingers when you squeeze it. It is composed of very tiny shells too small to see with the naked eye .
silica
is also used by plants and animals to make shells and support structures.
siliceous ooze
iliceous ooze is only found at high latitude (Antarctica and Alaska) and in a band along the equator in the Pacific Ocean.
clamshell sediment sampler
A device used to take shallow samples of the ocean bottom
piston corer
a long, heavy tube plunged into the seafloor to extract samples of mud sediment
drill ship
A maritime vessel modified to include a drilling rig and special station-keeping equipment
calcite compensation depth
refers to the specific depth of the ocean at which calcium carbonate minerals dissolve in the water quicker than they can accumulate
There are two kinds of calcareous sediments based on where they form and how big the grains are
Limestones form in shallow-water & Calcareous ooze
What kind of water do Calcareous organisms prefer?
Most calcareous organisms prefer warm water but they can occur in colder high latitude waters as well.
What are some examples of data? What is the difference between data and an idea?
anything you can observe or measure (needs to repeatable)
an idea
How was the solar system formed?
The various planets are thought to have formed from the solar nebula, the disc-shaped cloud of gas and dust left over from the Sun’s formation
What percent of the surface of the earth is water?
71% water & 29% land
What is meant by high latitude?
a latitude remote from the equator. above 60 degrees
What is meant by low latitude?
that part of the earth’s surface which is near the equator.
Why do all map projections distort the earth?
is a systematic transformation of the latitudes and longitudes of locations from the surface of a sphere or an ellipsoid into locations on a plane
What season is it in June in Antarctica?
winter
What season is it in June in Illinois?
Summer
dates for northern winter solstice
it always occurs around December 21 or 22. (In the Southern Hemisphere, the winter solstice occurs around June 20 or 21.)
What latitude is the sun above at each change of the seasons
The Tropic of Cancer is the circle marking the latitude 23.5 degrees north, where the sun is directly overhead at noon on June 21, the beginning of summer in the northern hemisphere
What is the role of density in creating the composition layers of the earth?
generates the magnetic field
Which layer has the highest density? (inside the earth
Inner Core
Which layer has the lowest density?
crust
which behavior layer makes up tectonic plates
lithosphere
geographic features divergent
submarine mountain range such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge; volcanic activity
geographic features transform boundaries
including fault lines, trenches, volcanoes, mountains, ridges and rift valleys.
geographic features
convergent boundaries
these areas can produce earthquakes, volcanic activity, and crustal deformation.
What was the fatal flaw in Wegener’s Continental Drift?
he could not explain what it was that made the continents move
Know the main lines of evidence (data) used by Harry Hess & J. Tuzo Wilson to develop Plate Tectonics.
Mid oceanic ridge data
Mid-Oceanic Ridge Data
- are high and hot = active volcanism
- have rift in the middle tension
- have very young rocks = just made
passive continental margin.
look at google examples
On a world map, be able to locate the following features:
Mid-Atlantic Ridge East Pacific Rise Aleutian Trench Mariana Trench (the world's deepest!) Peru-Chile Trench
google images
Know the main lines of evidence (data) used by Harry Hess & J. Tuzo Wilson to develop Plate Tectonics.
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Mirrors the coasts
-supports pangea
model to explain Ridge Data
Sea floor spreading (divergent boundary)
-high, hot and young since being made
-rift because pulling apart
-mimic coast as atlantic pulls open
major sources for lithogenous sediment
come from land via rivers, ice, wind and other processes.
How is Lithogenous transported from the land to the sea?
processes of weathering and erosion of materials exposed on land and along coastlines.
How is Lithogenous transported from the land to the sea?
processes of weathering and erosion of materials exposed on land and along coastlines.
How does settling velocity sort sediments such that coarser sediment (gravel) is mainly found close to shore and most deep water sediment is very fine (mud)?
Larger grains settle to the bottom faster than smaller grains This is important because it means gravel settles very quickly, and requires a very strong current to move. Most ocean currents aren’t strong enough to move gravel.
What are icebergs and how do they deposit gravel on the abyssal plain (dropstones)?
Any sediment trapped in the ice will be carried away by the iceberg. Once the iceberg drifts to warmer water, it melts and all the sediment falls to the sea floor. Gravel frozen into the ice, therefore, falls out on the abyssal plain without ever being carried by waves or currents. Geologists call these chunks of gravel dropstones, since they “drop” in what is otherwise muddy environment.
What are turbidity currents and how do they build submarine fans?
Submarine turbidity current is a high-density turbidity current formed by the sediment and movement of sand and mud covering the continental shelf or the upper part of the continental shelf; it is mainly induced by earthquakes, volcanic activities, storms, tsunami, and other sudden geological events.
turbidity current deposits build up large submarine fans.
What is the main difference between calcareous biogenous sediments and siliceous biogenous sediments?
Some biogenous sediments form close to their source, like calcium carbonate deposits along reefs. Other biogenous sediments form as tiny shells sink to the bottom of the ocean. Because of differences in chemistry, seafloor sediments made of calcium carbonate most commonly form in shallower and warmer water.
Where in the world are shallow-water limestones forming today?
Most of them are found in shallow water areas between 30 degrees north latitude and 30 degrees south latitude.
What kinds of organism make shallow-water limestone?
marine invertebrates like clams, corals, and snails
What kinds of organisms make calcareous ooze?
single-celled zooplankton foraminifera
since these calcareous organisms live most everywhere in the ocean, why are they seldom found on the abyssal plain (see CCD)?
Almost all of the calcareous organisms live in surface waters because deep ocean waters are undersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate.
What kinds of organisms make siliceous ooze?
is made by microscopic diatoms(algae) & adiolarians (protists)
Where in the ocean are siliceous oozes found?
found at high latitude (Antarctica and Alaska) and in a band along the equator in the Pacific Ocean.
Main methods for sediment sampling:
- clamshell sediment sampler
- Piston Corer (from abyssal plain)
- drilling ship
Advantages/disadvantages for Piston Corer
Adv - no swinging
- intact several meters of seafood sediment
- goes deeper and it extends
Advantages/disadvantages for Clamshell sediment sampler
adv- quick and easy
Dis-takes hours if want sampling from abyssal plain
Advantages/disadvantages for drilling ship
Adv
-can go thousands of meters in the abyssal plain
How was the drill ship Glomar Challenger used to test the model of plate tectonics?
needed something that could go thousands of meters below
What prediction was made for the thickness of sediments on ridges and abyssal plains? What did they find?
If the oceans were unchanging (as the previous view of the world proposed), then there should be a uniform and very thick layer of sediments everywhere. On the other hand, if plate tectonics was correct, the mid-oceanic ridges are very young and the crust gets older with distance from the ridge. Therefore, the sediment over these young ridges should be very thin, and the amount of sediment should increase as you get to older and older crust away from the ridge.
they found out the thinnest sediment was found near the center of the rigde & the youngest crust was also at the center
