Pulmonary Flashcards
1
Q
how is pH regulated?
A
exhalation of CO2
2
Q
what three things do the lungs do to prepare air for entrance into the body?
A
warm to body temp, add water vapor, filter foreign material
3
Q
the CO2 we exhale is a byproduct of what?
A
fat or sugar breakdown
4
Q
cells use oxygen to make what?
A
ATP
5
Q
what are the two roles of pleural fluid?
A
lubrication, chest wall sticking to lungs
6
Q
the chest wall wants to pull the lung ____
A
outwards
7
Q
the lung tissue wants to pull the lung ____
A
inwards
8
Q
___ ____ is related to the inward pull from the lung tissue
A
elastic recoil
9
Q
the ___ ___ of the secondary bronchi allow for contraction and closing
A
smooth mucle
10
Q
what is the major structure of the secondary bronchi?
A
cartilage plate
11
Q
what is the innermost layer of the secondary bronchi?
A
mucosa
12
Q
the fluid layer in the cilia (pericilliary fluid) helps cilia do what?
A
stand straight
13
Q
what part of the lung makes it a hostile environment?
A
cilia
14
Q
the ____ zone is from the trachea to the bronchioles
A
conducting
15
Q
does gas exchange occur in the conducting zone?
A
no
16
Q
the ____ zone is the respiratory bronchioles to the alveolar sacs
A
respiratory
17
Q
what is the primary surface for gas exchange?
A
alveolar sacs
18
Q
what cells synthesize surfactant?
A
type 2 alveolar
19
Q
what type of cells facilitate gas exchange by creating a shorter distance for gases to travel?
A
type 1 alveolar
20
Q
what is the immune cell of the lungs?
A
alveolar macrophage
21
Q
what are the 3 adaptations for gas exchange?
A
large surface area, thin diffusion barrier, stable gradients
22
Q
why is the concentration of CO2 low in the lungs?
A
to allow CO2 to flow from blood into the lungs so it can be exhaled out
23
Q
if you increase surface area, you ____ diffusion rate
A
increase
24
Q
surfactant _____ pressure in smaller alveoli
A
increases
25
surfactant _____ surface tension in smaller alveoli
lowers
26
surfactant ____ the formation of H bonds between water molecules in the alveoli
decreases
27
surfactant breaks some of the H bonds in the thin layer of fluid which makes the lungs easier to _____
inflate (more compliant)
28
pressure inside of a bubble formed by a fluid film is the function of what two factors?
surface tension, radius
29
air moves from ___ alveoli to ___ alveoli
small, large
30
what law relates radius and surface tension?
Law of LaPlace
31
according to the Law of LaPlace, if two bubbles have the same surface tension, the ____ bubble will have higher pressure
smaller
32
why don't small alveoli collapse into the big alveoli?
surfactant decreases surface tension, pressure is equalized
33
___ and ____ in the lungs increase elastic recoil
elastin, collagen
34
emphysema is a disease of ____ compliance
high
35
fibrosis is a disease of ___ compliance
low
36
do changes in airway diameters affect compliance or elastic recoil?
no
37
____ is related to the lungs ability to inhale
compliance
38
___ ____ is related to the lungs ability to exhale
elastic recoil
39
_____ Law is related to airway resistance
Poiseulille's
40
resistance to flow is proportional to what two things?
length, viscosity (these remain constant)
41
resistance to flow is inverse to what factor?
radius
42
___ is the biggest factor in determining resistance to flow
radius
43
parasympathetics neurons, histamine, and leukotrienes lead to ____
bronchoconstriction
44
carbon dioxide and epinephrine lead to _____
bronchodilation
45
___ ___ ___ occurs to maximize gas exchange
ventilation perfusion matching
46
if ventilation _____ in a group of alveoli, PCO2 increases and PO2 decreases
decreases
47
if ventilation decreases in a group of alveoli, what happens to the blood flowing past?
does not get oxygenated
48
what is hypoxic vasoconstriction?
if group of alveoli is underventilated, arterioles leading to it constrict and divert to alveoli that are better ventilated
49
afterload ____ if you have too much vasoconstriction
increases
50
what long-term consequence occurs if there is too much vasoconstriction for too long?
right-sided heart failure
51
atmospheric and alveolar pressure at rest
equal at 760 mmHg
52
at rest, what is the intrapleural pressure?
substmospheric (O2 wants to move into lungs)
53
what happens to the alveolar pressure during inhalation?
decreases (subatmospheric) to make pressure gradient
54
what happens to the alveolar pressure during exhalation?
increases to make pressure gradient to push CO2 out of the lungs
55
what happens to the alveolar pressure during inhalation?
decreases
56
what happens to the alveolar pressure during exhalation?
increases
57
describe the pressures and volumes of atmospheric and alveolar at rest?
equal
58
what are the four characteristics that contribute to ease of inflation?
airway resistance (i.e. mouth vs nose breathing), surface tension, compliance, elastance
59
inadequate ____ decreases compliance
surfactant
60
what are the mechanical events of breathing?
contraction (inhalation) and relaxation (exhalation) of diaphragm and intercostal muscles
61
what event is caused by the mechanical event of breathing?
volume event (increase or decrease alveolar volume)
62
what is caused by the volume event of breathing?
pressure event (increase or decrease in alveolar pressure)
63
what is caused by the pressure event of breating?
development of a pressure gradient
64
air will move until it reaches what?
equilibrium
65
Boyle's law relates what factors?
volume and pressure
66
breathing steps of a lung at rest
-no mechanical
-no volume change
-no pressure change
-no gradient formation
-no net air movement
67
breathing steps of inspiration
-diaphragm contracts
-increased volume
-decreased pressure
-gradient moves air into the lungs
-net movement of air into the lungs
68
breathing steps of exhalation
-diaphragm relaxes
-decreased volume
-increased pressure
-gradient moves air out of the lungs
-net movement of air out of the lungs
69
what is measured by spirometry?
air moving in and out of lungs
70
what is not measured by spirometry?
residual volume
71
___ ____ is the amount of air that you take in during a normal breath
tidal volume
72
___ ____ is the total amount of air moving in and out of the lungs per minute
minute ventilation
73
how is minute ventilation calculated?
tidal volume*respiratory rate
74
___ ____ is the amount of air that is available for gas exchange
alveolar ventilation
75
how is alveolar ventilation calculated?
(tidal volume-deadspace) * respiratory rate
76
what is respiratory rate?
breaths per minute
77
what is tidal volume?
mL/breath
78
volume versus capacity
volume is one, capacity is many
79
how do positive pressure ventilators work?
increase atmospheric pressure to create pressure gradient between lungs and air, air moves into lungs, then decrease atmospheric pressure to expel air from lungs
80
how many oxygen binding sites are on a hemoglobin?
4
81
what are the two means that O2 travels in the blood?
dissolved, bound to hemoglobin
82
what is the way that most of the O2 travels through blood?
bounds to hemoglobin in the RBC
83
___ _____ is the percentage of available binding spots on a hemoglobin occupied by O2
hemoglobin saturation
84
what is alveoli PO2 on the oxygen-hemoglobin binding curve?
100
85
what is the PO2 of a resting cell on the oxygen-hemoglobin binding curve?
40
86
what is happening to the bond of oxygen and hemoglobin in a leftward shift on the oxygen-hemoglobin binding curve?
increased bonding
87
what is happening to the bond of oxygen and hemoglobin in a rightward shift on the oxygen-hemoglobin binding curve?
release of bonds
88
what is more common, left or right shift on the oxygen-hemoglobin binding curve?
right (release)
89
direction of shift on oxygen-hemoglobin curve: high blood pH
left
90
direction of shift on oxygen-hemoglobin curve: low blood pH
right
91
direction of shift on oxygen-hemoglobin curve: low blood PCO2
left
92
direction of shift on oxygen-hemoglobin curve: high blood PCO2
right
93
direction of shift on oxygen-hemoglobin curve: low temperature
left
94
direction of shift on oxygen-hemoglobin curve: high temperature
right
95
direction of shift on oxygen-hemoglobin curve: no BPG
left
96
direction of shift on oxygen-hemoglobin curve: high BPG
right
97
BPG is a byproduct of what?
metabolism
98
what happens to O2 and CO2 during hypoventilation?
O2 falls, CO2 rises
99
what happens to O2 and CO2 during hyperventilation?
O2 rises, CO2 falls
100
what is the rate of normal ventilation?
4.2 L/min
101
what are the pressures of the alveoli and plasma prior to blood oxygenation?
100 mmHg in alveoli, 40 mmHg in plasma (resting cell)
102
what is bound content?
number of hemoglobin molecules * percent saturation
103
what is total content?
dissolved content + bound content (aka total amount of oxygen you have in blood)
104
respiratory control system is ____ feedback
negative
105
respiratory control system: controlled variable
PaO2, PaCO2
106
respiratory control system: sensor
chemoreceptors
107
respiratory control system: input
afferent nerves
108
respiratory control system: control center
respiratory control center (medulla, pons)
109
respiratory control system: output
somatic motor nerves
110
respiratory control system: effectors
intercostal muscles, diaphragm
111
respiratory control system: response
increased muscle contraction
112
respiratory control system: result of the negative feedback
increased PaO2 to normal
113
what do central chemoreceptors respond to?
changes in CO2 only
114
what do peripheral chemoreceptors respond to?
changes in CO2, O2, pH
115
where are the medulla and pons located?
brainstem
116
which intercostals are related to inspiration?
external
117
what intercostals are related to expiration?
internal
118
the ___ fine tunes control of breathing
pons
119
the ___ is the major control center for breathing
medulla
120
part of the medulla responsible for inspiratory (quiet) respiration
dorsal respiratory group (DRG)
121
part of the medulla responsible for expiratory (forceful) ventilation
ventral respiratory group (VRG)
122
part of the medulla responsible for pacemaking via spontaneous depolarization
pre-botzinger complex
123
what is the pre-botzinger complex a part of?
the ventral respiratory group (VRG)
124
the amount of oxygen that can bind to hemoglobin is determined by what?
the amount of oxygen in the dissolved
125
what two factors influence the total number of binding sites for oxygen on hemoglobin?
hemoglobin content per RBC, number of RBCs (i.e. anemic, bleeding)
126
what is the determining factor of percent saturation of hemoglobin?
how much/quality of air to the alveolous
127
_____ content is determined by how and what you breath
dissolved
128
____ content is dissolved plus bound
total
129
____ content is determined by the number of RBCs and number of binding sites
bound
130
what determines saturation?
percent of binding sites occupied
131
does saturation depend on amount of hemoglobin/RBCs?
no
132
flow of CO2 out of the body:
cells, blood, heart, lungs
133
7% of CO2 is where?
dissolved in plasma
134
23% of CO2 is where?
bound to hemoglobin
135
70% of CO2 undergoes what?
conversion into bicarbonate and then dissolved into the plasma
136
why is 70% of CO2 converted into bicarbonate (HCO3-)?
bicarbonate is more soluble
137
what is the weak acid made when CO2 and H2O come together?
H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
138
what is the biproduct of H2CO3 (weak, carbonic acid) breaking down?
H+, HCO3- (bicarbonate)
139
what is the resting cell CO2 level?
46 mmHg
140
where does bicarbonate go once it enters the dissolved/plasma?
lungs
141
why is bicarbonate transported to the lungs after diffusing into the plasma/dissolved?
maintain neutrality
142
what is the unique ability of carbonic anhydrase?
catalyzes reaction in both directions
143
what are the two locations of baroreceptors?
carotid, aortic arch
144
145
____ _____ ______ is the air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal breath
inspiratory reserve volume
146
____ _____ ____ is the air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal breath
expiratory reserve volume
147
__ ____ is the maximum air remaining in the lungs after maximal exhalation
residual volume
148
__ ___ ____ is the expiratory reserve volume and the residual volume, i.e. what is left in the lungs after a normal exhale
functional residual capacity
149
what makes up the vital capacity?
IRV, TV, ERV
150
what makes up the inspiratory capacity?
IRV, TV
151
what makes up the total lung capacity?
everything combined: IRV, TV, ERV, RV
152
how do you calculate residual volume?
total lung capacity (TLC) - vital capacity (VC)
153
is ATP consumed during inhalation or exhalation?
inhalation
154
central chemoreceptors sense changes to CO2 in the ____ component
dissolved
155
what activates the central chemoreceptor with CO2 is high?
release of H+ ions
156
why can't H+ ions from the cerebral capillary enter the CSF?
is charged so needs a channel
157
what are the two locations of peripheral chemoreceptors?
aortic arch, carotid body
158
steps of peripheral chemoreceptor reaction to low PO2
-K channels close
-cell depolarizes
-voltage-gated Ca channels open
-neurotransmitter released
159
what stimulates increased ventilation?
decreased O2, increased CO2, increased pH due to the increased CO2
160
what is normal plasma PO2?
100 mmHg
161
at what pressure of O2 does increased ventilation occur?
around 60
162
CO2 is ___ to pressure changes:
sensitive
163
what are the 3 ways to blood dope?
-injections of EPO
-injections of synthetic oxygen carriers
-transfusions with whole blood
164
what is the goal of blood doping?
increase RBC to increase bound
165
why is CO the silent killer?
body has no receptors for CO, does not know there is an issue
166
why does CO decrease oxygen levels?
outcompetes oxygen for binding spots on hemoglobin
