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Human Physiology > Cardiovascular > Flashcards

Cardiovascular Flashcards

1
Q

___ in the cardiac myocyte transfer force between cells

A

desmosomes

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2
Q

____ _____ in the cardiac myocyte transfer current via calcium between cells

A

gap junctions

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3
Q

what ion is transferred between gap junctions?

A

calcium

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4
Q

cardiac cells are ____ than skeletal cells

A

smaller

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5
Q

how many nucleus are in a cardiac myocyte?

A

1

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6
Q

the ____ is the cardiac contractile unit

A

sarcomere

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7
Q

what two zones on the sarcomere disappear during contraction?

A

H zone, I band

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8
Q

where is calcium stored in the sarcomere?

A

sarcoplasmic reticulum

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9
Q

what act occurring in the sarcomere causes contraction?

A

calcium binds to troponin

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10
Q

what filament is the outer layer of the sarcomere?

A

actin/thin

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11
Q

what filament is the inner layer of the sarcomere?

A

myosin/thick

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12
Q

there are ____ mitochondria in cardiac cells than skeletal cells

A

more

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13
Q

mitochondria are ____ in cardiac cells than skeletal cells

A

larger (in volume)

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14
Q

calcium enters the sarcolema through what?

A

dihydrogen pyrimidine receptor

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15
Q

where in the cell does excitation-contraction coupling take place?

A

sarcolema (plasma membrane of the cardiac cell)

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16
Q

how do the stores of calcium leave the sarcoplasmic reticulum?

A

through the ryanadine receptor

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17
Q

where is the DHPR located in the sarcolema?

A

T-tubule

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18
Q

what triggers the release of calcium from the stores in the SR?

A

calcium entering the cell through DHRP

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19
Q

describe calcium induced calcium release

A

calcium entering the sarcolema through DHRP triggers calcium to be released from the SR through the RYR

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20
Q

what does calcium bind to once it is in the sarcolema?

A

troponin on the sarcomere

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21
Q

what is the name for contraction of the sarcomere?

A

systole

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22
Q

what is the name for relaxation of the sarcomere?

A

diastole

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23
Q

what causes diastole of the sarcomere?

A

calcium releasing from troponin

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24
Q

how does calcium re-enter the SR during diastole/relaxation?

A

Ca ATP-ase pump

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25
Q

how does calcium leave the sarcolema altogether during relaxation/diastole?

A

Na/Ca exchanger

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26
Q

when calcium leaves the sarcolema, what molecule enters?

A

3 molecules of sodium

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27
Q

when sodium enters the sarcolema during relaxation, how does it leave?

A

through Na/K ATP-ase

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28
Q

what enters the cell as sodium leaves during relaxation?

A

2 molecules of potassium

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29
Q

how does potassium leave the cell during relaxation?

A

voltage-gated sodium channels

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30
Q

what percent of calcium enters the sarcolema through DHRP from the ECF?

A

20%

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31
Q

what percent of calcium enters the sarcolema through RYR from the SR?

A

80%

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32
Q

force generation in the myocyte is directly proportional to what?

A

number of actin crossbridges (binds of calcium and troponin)

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33
Q

_____ is a word that describes how the length of sarcomeres affects force of contraction

A

contractility

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34
Q

what causes the cardiac cell action potential to plateau?

A

voltage-gated calcium channels open

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35
Q

what mV is the cardiac cell at while in rest?

A

-90 mv

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36
Q

what mV causes an action potential in the cardiac cell?

A

+20 mV

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37
Q

how long does it take to complete one cardiac action potential?

A

.8 seconds

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38
Q

can cardiac muscle undergo tetany?

A

no

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39
Q

what node of the heart beats 70 bpm?

A

sinoatrial (SA)

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40
Q

what node of the heart beats 50-60 bpm?

A

atrioventricular (AV)

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41
Q

why does the AV node beat slower than the SA node?

A

fever gap junctions to relay currents

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42
Q

where is the heart does it beat 40 bpm?

A

purkinje fibers

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43
Q

why do purkinje fibers have a high electrical current even though they have 40 bpm?

A

high nodule cells, high level of gap junctions

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44
Q

___ ____ transfer current from the SA to cardiac myocytes

A

gap junctions

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45
Q

what is the general flow of current through the heart?

A

SA node, AV node, bundle of his, bundle branches, purkinje fibers

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46
Q

what is the reference value for electrical activity?

A

ground

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47
Q

what is the name of the shape/layout of leads on the heart?

A

Beethoven’s triangle

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48
Q

how many leads does it take to detect heart rhythm?

A

3

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49
Q

if a positive lead depolarizes, what direction is the deflection?

A

up

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50
Q

if a negative lead depolarizes, what direction is the deflection?

A

down

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51
Q

if a positive lead repolarizes, what direction is the deflection?

A

down

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52
Q

if a negative lead repolarizes, what direction is the deflection?

A

up

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53
Q

what is it called when the deflection is a flat line?

A

isoelectric/perpendicular

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54
Q

what lead produces a wave most similar to that of an ECG?

A

lead 2

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55
Q

what lead produces a wave most perpendicular to an ECG?

A

lead 3

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56
Q

all four valves can be ___ at the same time but not ____ at the same time

A

closed, open

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57
Q

valves are shaped in a way that ensures what?

A

one-way flow

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58
Q

how many heart valves are able to be open at the same time?

A

2

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59
Q

___ ____ is the filling of the ventricles with blood

A

ventricular diastole

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60
Q

what valves are closed during ventricular diastole?

A

aortic, pulmonary

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61
Q

what valves are open during ventricular diastole?

A

both AV valves

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62
Q

____ _____ is the ventricles ejection blood

A

ventricular systole

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63
Q

what valves are open during ventricular systole?

A

aortic, pulmonary

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64
Q

what valves are closed during ventricular systole?

A

both AV valves

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65
Q

what is the name of the valve between RA and RV?

A

tricuspid (Right AV valve)

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66
Q

what is the name of the valve between LA and LV?

A

mitral (Left AV valve)

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67
Q

what type of blood enters the RA?

A

deoxygenated

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68
Q

what type of blood leaves the pulmonary artery?

A

deoxygenated

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69
Q

what type of blood enters the LA?

A

oxygenated

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70
Q

what type of blood leaves the aortic valve?

A

oxygenated

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71
Q

what valves closing makes the LUB sound?

A

AV valves

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72
Q

what valves closing makes the DUB sound?

A

aortic and pulmonary

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73
Q

what is the S1 heart sound?

A

LUB

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74
Q

what is the S2 heart sound?

A

DUB

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75
Q

cardiac cells have an ____ resting membrane potential

A

unstable

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76
Q

why do cardiac cells have an unstable resting membrane potential?

A

funny channels are permeable to both sodium and potassium

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77
Q

a ____ is two connected electrodes

A

lead

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78
Q

what electrical activity occurs at the P wave?

A

atrial depolarization

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79
Q

what mechanical activity occurs at the P wave?

A

contraction/systole of the atria

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80
Q

what is occurring during the PR segment?

A

AV nodal delay, allows for ventricles to fill and for all of the blood to exit the atria

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81
Q

what two electrical activities occur during the QRS complex?

A

ventricular depolarization, atrial repolarization

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82
Q

what two mechanical events occur during the QRS complex?

A

ventricular contraction/systole, atrial relaxation/diastole

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83
Q

what occurs during the ST segment?

A

ventricles are fully depolarized/contracted

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84
Q

what electrical event occurs during the T wave?

A

ventricular repolarization

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85
Q

what mechanical event occurs during the T wave?

A

ventricular relaxation/diastole

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86
Q

ventricles are _____ with blood between T wave and the next P wave?

A

filling

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87
Q

the T wave is a _____ deflection

A

positive

88
Q

depolarization of ventricles during the QRS complex goes from ____ to _____

A

endocardium, epicardium

89
Q

repolarization of ventricles during the T wave goes from ____ to ______

A

epicardium, endocardium

90
Q

the ___ ____ _______ determines the position of the heart

A

mean ventricular axis

91
Q

how do you calculate heart rate from an ECG?

A

beats (cycles) / time

92
Q

what is the unit for heart pressure change?

A

mmHg

93
Q

the parasympathetics ____ heart rate

A

decrease

94
Q

the sympathetics _______ heart rate

A

increase

95
Q

_____ ANS comes from the brainstem/medulla

A

parasymathetic

96
Q

____ ANS comes from the lower spinal cord

A

sympathetics

97
Q

sympathetics release _____ NTX

A

norepinephrine

98
Q

parasympathetics release ____ NT

A

acetylcholine

99
Q

what do the sympathetics do to the IF?

A

make more permeable to sodium, higher chance of action potential

100
Q

what do the parasympathetics do to the IF?

A

make more permeable to potassium, lower chance of action potential

101
Q

___ ____ is the amount of blood ejected from the heart in one minute

A

cardiac output (CO)

102
Q

how do you calculate cardiac output?

A

heart rate (bpm) * stroke volume (mL)

103
Q

what is the normal resting cardiac output?

A

about 5L/min

104
Q

___ ____ is the volume of blood ejected per beat

A

stroke volume

105
Q

how is stroke volume calculated?

A

end diastolic volume (EDV) - end systolic volume (ESV)

106
Q

how are the valves positioned during isovolumetric contraction?

A

all valves closed

107
Q

how are the valves positioned during ESV?

A

all closed

108
Q

SV/EDV * 100%= ______ ______

A

ejection fraction

109
Q

what is the normal range of ejection fraction?

A

50-80%

110
Q

what 3 factors regulate stroke volume?

A

preload, contractility, afterload

111
Q

______ is the degree of stretch on the heart, prior to ejection of blood

A

preload

112
Q

preload is the same as ____

A

EDV

113
Q

____ is the force and intensity of contraction, specifically related to calcium concentration and the SR calcium concentration and the subsequent crossbridges

A

contractility

114
Q

_____ is the pressure required to eject blood from the ventricles to the aorta or pulmonary artery

A

afterload

115
Q

____ reflects systemic blood pressure/mean arterial pressure

A

afterload

116
Q

what is the Frank-Starling law of the heart?

A

the more that you fill the ventricles, the more forceful the ejection

117
Q

as you increase EDV, you ____ stroke volume

A

increase

118
Q

what three things influence venous return?

A

skeletal muscle pump, respiratory pump, sympathetic innervation of veins

119
Q

___ ____ must be equal to cardiac output

A

venous return

120
Q

EDV is determined by what?

A

venous return

121
Q

_____ is influenced by the degree of stretch

A

preload

122
Q

the more you increase EDV, the more that you will ____ stroke volume up to a point

A

increase

123
Q

the overstretching of sarcomeres leads to decreased crossbridges, decreased tension, and overall ___ ____

A

heart failure

124
Q

contractility can be affected by ____

A

inotropes

125
Q

positive change in contractility leads to what?

A

increased calcium sensitivity with calcium

126
Q

in contractility, norepinephrine, epinephrine/adrenaline, and caffeine are _____ factors

A

positive

127
Q

positive stroke volume inotropes do what?

A

increase SV without changing EDV

128
Q

negative stroke volume inotropes do what?

A

decrease SV without changing EDV

129
Q

in contractility, beta blockers and DHPR are ____ factors

A

negative

130
Q

the sympathetic nervous system has a _____ inotropic effect

A

positive

131
Q

protein kinase A adds ____ to RYR, CA ATPase, and troponin to lead to a faster reaction

A

phosphate

132
Q

what occurs when a phosphate group is added to troponin?

A

decrease calcium sensitivity, can turn on and off faster

133
Q

G protein activates ___ ____

A

adenylate cyclate

134
Q

the ATP released when G protein activates adenylate cyclate activates what?

A

protein kinase A

135
Q

_______ is a representation of systemic blood pressure

A

afterload

136
Q

what is the average pressure of the left ventricle?

A

80 mmHg

137
Q

what is the average pressure of the right ventricle?

A

20 mmHg

138
Q

hypertension _____ the afterload force and makes the heart work harder to open pulmonary and aortic valves

A

increases

139
Q

hypertension _____ stroke volume

A

decreases

140
Q

the greater the afterload, the ______ the velocity of shortening

A

slower

141
Q

ohm’s law relates what three variables?

A

blood flow (Q), change in pressure (P), and resistance (R)

142
Q

blood flow (Q) is _____ to the change in pressure

A

proportional

143
Q

blood flow (Q) is _____ to resistance

A

inverse

144
Q

if there is no pressure change, what is the flow of blood?

A

there is none

145
Q

poiseulle’s law relates what three variables to reisitance?

A

length (L), viscosity (n), and radius (r)

146
Q

resistance is _____ to length

A

proportional

147
Q

resistance ____ as we age because the blood vessels are getting longer

A

increases

148
Q

resistance is _____ to viscosity

A

proportional

149
Q

as we increase RBC count, viscosity ____

A

increases

150
Q

resistance is _____ to radius

A

inverse

151
Q

____ is the biggest influence on resistance

A

greatest

152
Q

if you increase radius, resistance ____, blood flow ____, and this is known as vasodilation

A

decrease, increase

153
Q

capillaries are ____ layer(s) thick

A

one

154
Q

what type of blood vessel has the most smooth muscle?

A

arteries/arterioles

155
Q

what type of blood vessel has the greatest radius?

A

venioles, veins

156
Q

2/3 of human body blood is stored where?

A

veins

157
Q

compliance of the aorta occurs during what?

A

ventricular contraction/systole

158
Q

____ is the ability of the aorta to stretch due to pressure change

A

compliance

159
Q

compliance ____ as we age

A

decreases

160
Q

____ are the blood vessel that is the most compliant

A

veins

161
Q

___ ____ is the ability of the aorta to return to it’s normal shape

A

elastic recoil

162
Q

____ is what keeps the aorta closed during elastic recoil

A

pressure

163
Q

the aorta recoils during what stage?

A

ventricular relaxation/diastole

164
Q

how is pulse pressure calculated?

A

systolic value-diastolic value

165
Q

how is mean arterial pressure (MAP) calculated?

A

diastolic value + 1/3(pulse pressure)

166
Q

the dichromic notch is the closing of the ____ ____

A

aortic valve

167
Q

____ flow is the smooth and quiet flow of blood

A

laminar

168
Q

____ flow is the noisy and bouncing flow of blood

A

turbulent

169
Q

____ are the resistance vessels

A

arterioles

170
Q

high resistant vessels have ____ control of their radius

A

high

171
Q

resistance vessels such as arterioles are innervated with ____ neurons only for the smooth muscle

A

sympathetic

172
Q

the percentage of blood flow to organs during different activities is controlled by ______

A

arterioles

173
Q

at rest, ____% of blood flow is to the brain, ____% to kidneys, _____% to skeletal muscle, and ____% to the GI tract

A

15, 20, 20, 20

174
Q

during heavy exercise, ____% of blood flow is to the brain, ____% to kidneys, _____% to skeletal muscle, and ____% to the GI tract

A

10-13, 1, 80, 1

175
Q

what are the 3 kinds of capillaries?

A

continuous, discontinuous, fenestrated

176
Q

this type of capillary has no holes, no clefts, and is in the lungs for gas exchange

A

continuous

177
Q

this type of capillary has holes, clefts, the cells are not always in contact, and are in the liver

A

discontinuous

178
Q

this type of capillary has small holes located in the endothelial cells that allow small molecules such as glucose and ions to pass and are found in most tissues (skeletal muscle, kidneys, etc.)

A

fenestrated

179
Q

increase in CO2 and decrease on O2 are intrinsic factors that allow for _____

A

vasodilation

180
Q

metabolites and endothelian are intrinsic factors that allow for _____

A

vasoconstriction

181
Q

the total combined area of ____ is the largest out of all blood vessels

A

capillaries

182
Q

blood flow ____ in the capillaries

A

slows

183
Q

what is the resistance vessel?

A

arterioles

184
Q

there is more ____ than ______ occurring in vessels

A

filtration, absorption

185
Q

___ ____ is due to filtration across capillary walls

A

bulk flows

186
Q

hydrostatic pressure gradient and oncotic pressure gradient affect ___ ____

A

bulk flow

187
Q

____ L of interstitial fluids are drained into lymph vessels daily

A

3

188
Q

edema occurs when ____ exceeds ____

A

filtration, absorption

189
Q

when muscles are _____, vein valves open and venous return is increased

A

contracted

190
Q

during inhalation, blood is being pumped to the ___ via vena cava

A

heart

191
Q

only the ____ ANS innervates blood vessels

A

sympathetic

192
Q

what five things lead to venous return?

A

venous pressure gradient, one way flow of venous valves, skeletal muscle pump, respiratory pump, sympathetic innervation

193
Q

the following conditions lead to what?
-thin and relaxed smooth muscle
-increased CO2
-increased metabolites
-increased nitric oxide
-systemic decrease in O2

A

vasodilation (increased radius)

194
Q

the following conditions leads to what?
-thick and contracted smooth muscle
-decreased CO2
-increased endothelian
-decreased O2 in lungs only

A

vasoconstriction (decreased radius)

195
Q

norepinephrine binding to _____ causes vasodilation

A

B2 adrenergic receptor

196
Q

norepinephrine binding to B2 adrenergic receptor occurs mostly where?

A

in skeletal muscle

197
Q

what hormone leads to vasodilation?

A

nitric oxide

198
Q

norepinephrine binding to ____ causes vasoconstriction

A

a1 adrenergic receptor

199
Q

norepinephrine binding to a1 adrenergic receptor occurs in what two locations?

A

small intestine, kidney

200
Q

what hormone leads to vasoconstriction?

A

angiotensin 2

201
Q

where are the two locations of baroreceptors?

A

carotid, aortic arch

202
Q

baroreceptors respond to blood pressure change by ____

A

stretch

203
Q

stretch response from baroreceptors leads to generation of an ____ _____

A

action potential

204
Q

increased stretch from baroreceptors occurs from ____ blood pressure

A

increased

205
Q

what three things are innervated by sympathetics in the baroreceptor reflex arch?

A

SA/AV nodes, myocardium in the ventricles, vascular smooth muscle

206
Q

what is the only thing innervated by parasympathetics in the baroreceptor reflex arch?

A

SA/AV nodes

207
Q

the baroreceptor reflex arch is a ____ feedback mechanism

A

negative

208
Q

____ pressure is fluid and gravity

A

hydrostatic

209
Q

____ pressure affects the distribution of blood throughout the body

A

hydrostatiC

210
Q

there is even distribution of blood and hydrostatic pressure when someone is in what position?

A

supine

211
Q

when standing, what is the body distribution of blood?

A

lowest in head, highest in feet, none at heart

212
Q

____ _____ is a failure of baroreceptors to respond quickly

A

orthostatic hypotension

213
Q

what three factors could lead to orthostatic hypotension?

A

age, low resting blood pressure, blood volume from dehydration

214
Q

_____ reflexes occur relatively fast and react to changes in body position

A

neuronal

215
Q

_____ reflexes occur slower and are more long term

A

hormonal

216
Q

the korotkoft sound is during ____ flow

A

turbulent

217
Q
A

Human Physiology (9 decks)

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