Psychopathology Flashcards
What is meant by “Deviation from Social Norms” in the context of abnormality?
It refers to any behavior that goes against the accepted, expected, and approved ways of behaving in a society. Abnormality is seen as breaking the ‘rules of society’.
AO3 - Why is the definition of “Deviation from Social Norms” considered unreliable over time?
Social norms change over time. What is socially acceptable now may not have been acceptable 50 years ago, reducing the reliability of this definition.
AO3 - Provide an example of how social norms have changed over time.
Homosexuality is now acceptable but was previously classified as a disorder in the DSM used by psychiatrists.
AO3 - How do social norms differ between cultures, impacting the definition of abnormality?
Norms are culturally relative. For example, hearing voices is viewed as abnormal in some cultures but more accepted in others.
AO3 - Why is the cultural relativity of social norms a problem for defining abnormality?
A reliable definition of abnormality should be consistent between cultures, which this definition is not.
AO3 - How can defining abnormality by social norms be seen as repressive?
It can punish individuals for expressing their individuality and conforming to repressive cultural norms.
AO3 - Provide examples of changes in social norms recognized by the World Health Organization.
The WHO declassified homosexuality as a mental illness in 1992 and transgender health issues in 2019, reflecting changing social norms.
AO3 - Why might using social norms to define abnormality be damaging?
It can harm individuals who do not conform to social norms, suggesting the need for a more appropriate definition.
AO3 - What is a strength of the “Deviation from Social Norms” definition compared to “statistical infrequency”?
It distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behavior and considers the impact on others.
AO3 - Give an example of how the “Deviation from Social Norms” definition is more appropriate than “statistical infrequency.”
Spending a lot of time washing hands may not be statistically infrequent but can be harmful to the individual and their loved ones.
AO1 - What does “Failure to Function Adequately” mean in the context of abnormality?
A: It means that a person is unable to cope with everyday life or engage in everyday behaviors, causing distress and suffering for themselves and/or others.
AO1- Provide examples of behaviors indicating a failure to function adequately.
Examples include being unable to hold down a job, struggling with everyday activities like eating regularly, washing clothes, or shopping.
AO1 - Why is “distress to others” included in the definition of failure to function adequately?
Because in some mental disorders, the individual may not be distressed but their behavior can cause distress to others, such as in the case of schizophrenia.
AO1 - What characteristics of abnormality did Rosenhan and Seligman propose?
1) Suffering,
2) Maladaptive behavior,
3) Unconventionality,
4) Unpredictability and loss of control
5) Irrationality and incomprehensibility.
AO1 - What is meant by “maladaptive behavior”?
A: It refers to behavior that prevents a person from progressing in life.
AO1 - How does the characteristic “unconventionality” relate to abnormality?
A: It means that the behavior of an abnormal person is odd in some way.
AO1 - How does “irrationality and incomprehensibility” characterize abnormal behavior?
It refers to behavior that others cannot understand or make sense of.
AO3 - What is a strength of the “Failure to Function Adequately” definition?
It includes the patient’s perspective, considering the level of distress experienced by the patient.
Provide an example of how the patient’s perspective is considered in failure to function adequately definition.
The level of distress experienced by the patient is taken into account when defining their behavior as abnormal.
AO3 - What is a limitation of the “Failure to Function Adequately” definition regarding dysfunction?
Abnormality is not always accompanied by dysfunction; for example, psychopaths can cause harm while appearing normal.
Give an example of an abnormal person who did not display dysfunction.
Harold Shipman, a GP who murdered at least 215 patients, seemed respectable and did not display features of dysfunction.
AO3 - How does cultural relativism limit the “Failure to Function Adequately” definition?
Different cultures have different views on what constitutes adequate functioning, such as the varying acceptance of long periods of grief after bereavement.
Why is cultural relativism a problem for this definition?
Because for the definition to be reliable, the same behavior should be viewed consistently across different cultures.
AO3 - What is another limitation of the “Failure to Function Adequately” definition?
Abnormality could be due to other factors, such as economic situations, rather than mental health issues.
AO3 - What is another limitation of the “Failure to Function Adequately” definition?
Abnormality could be due to other factors, such as economic situations, rather than mental health issues.
Provide an example of a situation where abnormality might be mislabelled using this failure to function adequately definition
Someone unable to hold down a job due to economic conditions might be incorrectly labeled as abnormal when other definitions might not.
AO1 - What does the definition of “Statistical Infrequency” state about abnormal behavior?
Any behavior that is statistically rare is considered abnormal.
How do we determine if a behavior is statistically rare?
By examining a normal distribution curve to identify the proportion of people sharing the characteristics or behavior being looked at.
When is human behavior considered abnormal in statistical terms?
When it falls outside the range that is typical for most people, usually two standard deviations from the mean.
Provide examples of characteristics that might be considered statistically infrequent.
Height, weight, and intelligence—people outside the typical range might be considered abnormally tall or short, fat or thin, clever or unintelligent.
What is a strength of the “Statistical Infrequency” definition of abnormality?
It is an objective way to define abnormality with a clear ‘cut off’ point, making it easier to decide who meets the criteria to be labeled as abnormal.
Why is the “Statistical Infrequency” definition seen as less subjective than other definitions?
Because it provides a clear and agreed-upon ‘cut off’ point.
AO3 - What is a major problem with the “Statistical Infrequency” definition?
It includes many abnormal behaviors that are actually quite desirable, like having a high IQ.
AO3 - Why might common but undesirable behaviors pose a problem for the “Statistical Infrequency” definition?
Because behaviors like experiencing depression after a painful event are common but undesirable, complicating treatment planning.
Why can’t the “Statistical Infrequency” definition be used alone to make a diagnosis?
Because it fails to distinguish between desirable and undesirable abnormal behaviors.
AO3 - Why can’t the “Statistical Infrequency” definition be used alone to make a diagnosis?
Because it fails to distinguish between desirable and undesirable abnormal behaviors.
AO3 - What issue arises when trying to separate normality from abnormality using Statistical Infrequency definition?
Because it fails to distinguish between desirable and undesirable abnormal behaviors.
What issue arises when trying to separate normality from abnormality using this definition?
Deciding the cut-off point for what is considered abnormal, especially for disorders that vary greatly in severity like depression.
AO3 - Why is it difficult to determine when a common symptom, like crying, becomes abnormal?
Because the cut-off point is subjectively determined, lacking the validity needed for effective diagnosis.
AO3 - How can the “Statistical Infrequency” definition be culturally biased?
Some behaviors that are statistically infrequent in one culture may be more frequent in another.
Provide an example of a behavior that is statistically infrequent in some cultures but common in others.
Hearing voices, a symptom of schizophrenia, is common in some cultures.
Provide an example of a behavior that is statistically infrequent in some cultures but common in others.
Hearing voices, a symptom of schizophrenia, is common in some cultures.
AO3 - Why is cultural bias a problem for the “Statistical Infrequency” definition?
Because it may classify individuals as abnormal even when they are displaying normal behavior for their culture, limiting its applicability.
AO1 - How does the “Deviation from Ideal Mental Health” approach differ from other definitions of abnormality?
Unlike other definitions, it defines criteria for normality (or ideal mental health) and considers people who lack these criteria as abnormal.
AO1 - Who defined the concept of ideal mental health and when?
Marie Jahoda in 1958.
AO1 - What are the six characteristics of ideal mental health according to Jahoda?
- Perception of reality
- Resistance to stress
- Self-attitudes
- Autonomy
- Self-actualization and personal growth
- Mastery of the environment
AO1 - What does “Perception of reality” mean in the context of ideal mental health?
Being able to see the world as it is.
AO1 - How is “Resistance to stress” defined in ideal mental health?
The ability to cope with stressful situations.
AO1 - What is meant by “Self-attitudes” in ideal mental health?
Having high self-esteem and a strong sense of self-identity.
AO1 - What does “Autonomy” refer to in ideal mental health?
Functioning as an independent individual.
AO1 - What does “Autonomy” refer to in ideal mental health?
Functioning as an independent individual.
AO1 - What is “Self-actualization and personal growth” in the context of ideal mental health?
Focusing on the future and fulfilling one’s potential.
AO1 - How is “Mastery of the environment” defined in ideal mental health?
The ability to adjust to new situations and function effectively at work and in relationships with others.
AO1 - What happens if someone lacks the qualities defined by Jahoda for ideal mental health?
The fewer of these qualities a person has, the more abnormal they are seen to be.
AO3 - What is one strength of the “Deviation from Ideal Mental Health” definition?
It offers an alternative perspective on mental disorders by focusing on positive behaviors rather than negative ones.
AO3 - How does Jahoda’s definition align with the humanistic approach?
Both focus on the positive aspects of human nature.
AO3 - What is a potential cultural bias in the “Deviation from Ideal Mental Health” definition?
The ideals of mental health may not be applicable to all cultures, making the definition ethnocentric.
AO3 - Why might the criterion of self-actualization be culturally biased?
It is relevant to individualistic cultures but not to collectivist cultures where the focus is on the greater good of the community.
AO3 - What is a major criticism regarding the clarity of criteria in the “Deviation from Ideal Mental Health” definition?
It is unclear how many criteria need to be lacking before someone is considered to be deviating from ideal mental health.
AO3 - Why is the lack of clear criteria a problem in this definition?
It requires subjective judgment by individual psychiatrists, leading to inconsistency and a lack of objectivity.
What is a phobia
An irrational fear of an object or situation
What does behavioural mean
Ways in which people act
What does emotional mean
Ways in which people feel
What does cognitive mean
Ways in which people process information
AO1 - What does DSM stand for?
Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.
What are the three mental disorders you need to know about
Phobias, depression, and OCD.
How are phobias characterized according to DSM-5?
By excessive fear and anxiety triggered by an object, place, or situation, with the fear being out of proportion to any real danger.
What are the categories of phobias recognized by DSM-5?
Specific phobia, social phobia, and agoraphobia.
AO1 - What is a specific phobia?
Fear of an object, such as an animal, or a situation, such as flying or having an injection.
AO1 - What is a social phobia?
Phobia of a social situation, such as public speaking or using a public toilet.
AO1 - What is agoraphobia?
Fear of leaving home or a safe place, characterized by fear of being outside or in a public place.
AO1 - What are the behavioral ways in which people act in response to phobias?
Panic, avoidance, and disruption of functioning.
AO1 - Why do people with phobias avoid certain situations?
Because anxiety increases by being close to the feared situation.
AO1 - Why do people with phobias avoid certain situations?
Because anxiety increases by being close to the feared situation.
How can phobias disrupt functioning?
Anxiety and avoidance responses can interfere with everyday working and social functioning.
What are irrational beliefs in the context of cognitive characteristics of phobias?
Sufferers often hold irrational beliefs about the phobic stimuli and are resistant to rational arguments.
What is selective attention in relation to phobias?
Sufferers focus intently on a phobic stimulus, making it difficult to look away, which can interfere with day-to-day life.
Why is selective attention not useful in the case of irrational fears?
Because it interferes with normal activities, such as a pogonophobic struggling to concentrate if someone in the room has a beard.
What are some emotional characteristics of phobias
Anxiety and fear
AO1 - What are some cognitive characteristics of Phobias
Irrational beliefs and selection and attention
AO1- What is anxiety in the context of emotional characteristics of phobias?
An unpleasant state of high arousal making it difficult to experience positive emotions, often long-term.
AO1 - How is fear characterized in phobias?
As an extremely unreasonable emotional response to a phobic stimulus.
AO1 - What are irrational beliefs in the context of cognitive characteristics of phobias?
Sufferers often hold irrational beliefs about the phobic stimuli and are resistant to rational arguments.
AO1 - What is the Behavioural Approach in psychology?
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.
AO1 - What is Classical Conditioning?
Learning by association, occurring when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together – UCS and NS, with the NS eventually producing the same response as the UCS alone, becoming the CS.
AO1 - What is Operant Conditioning?
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences, including positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment.
What is the Two-Process Model (Mowrer, 1960)?
A model stating that phobias are acquired by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning.
What is the Two-Process Model (Mowrer, 1960)?
A model stating that phobias are acquired by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning.
AO1 - How are phobias acquired through Classical Conditioning?
By associating a stimulus with a response, such as the fear of dogs after being bitten.
AO1 Give an example of Classical Conditioning in phobias.
Watson and Rayner induced a fear of white rats in Little Albert by pairing the rat (NS) with a loud noise (UCS), resulting in a new stimulus (CS) being learned.
AO1 - How are phobias maintained through Operant Conditioning?
Through negative reinforcement, where avoiding a phobic stimulus reduces fear and anxiety, reinforcing avoidance behaviour and maintaining the phobia. Through negative reinforcement, where avoiding a phobic stimulus reduces fear and anxiety, reinforcing avoidance behaviour and maintaining the phobia.
Through negative reinforcement, where avoiding a phobic stimulus reduces fear and anxiety, reinforcing avoidance behaviour and maintaining the phobia. Through negative reinforcement, where avoiding a phobic stimulus reduces fear and anxiety, reinforcing avoidance behaviour and maintaining the phobia.
AO1 - What did Mowrer (1960) demonstrate in his experiment?
That rats could be trained to escape a shock by jumping over a barrier when a buzzer sounded, supporting the Two-Process Model.
AO1 - What did Mowrer (1960) demonstrate in his experiment?
That rats could be trained to escape a shock by jumping over a barrier when a buzzer sounded, supporting the Two-Process Model.
AO1 - What are some practical applications of the behaviourist explanation of phobias?
Behavioural therapies such as systematic desensitisation, which uses classical conditioning to ‘unlearn’ phobias, are effective in treating a range of phobias.
AO1 - What evidence supports the success of systematic desensitisation in treating phobias?
McGrath et al (1990) found that 75% of phobic patients showed improvement in their symptoms after treatment.
AO3 - What criticism does the behaviourist explanation face regarding evolutionary factors?
It fails to explain innate predispositions to fear things like snakes and spiders, which have been sources of danger in our evolutionary past.
AO1 - What does Seligman’s (1971) research suggest about phobias?
That we are naturally predisposed to fear certain things due to evolutionary factors, indicating that the Two-Process Model may be too simplistic.
AO3 - How does the behaviourist explanation fail to address cognitive aspects of phobias?
It doesn’t account for irrational thoughts, such as the fear of suffocating in a lift, which can create extreme anxiety and trigger phobias.
Why is a combined approach needed to explain phobias?
Because a thorough explanation of phobias requires incorporating both behavioural and cognitive components.
AO1 - What is Systematic Desensitisation?
A behavioural therapy designed to reduce an unwanted response, like anxiety, to a stimulus through a hierarchy of anxiety-provoking situations while maintaining relaxation.
AO1 - What is Flooding?
A treatment where the phobic patient is exposed to an extreme form of the phobic stimulus to reduce anxiety triggered by that stimulus.
AO1 - What is Flooding?
A treatment where the phobic patient is exposed to an extreme form of the phobic stimulus to reduce anxiety triggered by that stimulus.
What are the two treatment types stemming from the behavioural approach to treating phobias?
Systematic Desensitisation and Flooding.
