Memory Flashcards
What does coding refer to in memory?
Coding refers to the format or type of information stored in memory. In STM
What is the capacity of short-term memory (STM) according to Miller?
The capacity of STM is 7 +/- 2 items
What is the duration of short-term memory (STM) according to Petersen et al (1959)?
The duration of STM is 18-30 seconds.
What is the capacity of long-term memory (LTM)?
LTM has an unlimited capacity.
What did Bahrick et al (1975) discover about LTM duration?
Bahrick et al found that the duration of LTM is unlimited
What are the three main stores in the multi-store model of memory (MSM)?
The sensory register
How is information transferred from sensory register to STM in the MSM?
Information is transferred from the sensory register to STM through attention.
What type of coding does STM use according to Baddeley?
STM is acoustically coded.
What type of coding does LTM use according to Baddeley?
LTM is semantically coded.
What are the three types of long-term memory (LTM)?
Episodic
Which type of long-term memory (LTM) is recalled unconsciously?
Procedural memories are recalled unconsciously.
What did Petersen et al. (1988) discover about semantic and episodic memory?
Semantic memories are recalled from the left prefrontal cortex
What is the working memory model (WMM)?
The WMM suggests STM is made up of the central executive
What is the role of the central executive in the working memory model (WMM)?
The central executive is an attentional process that allocates tasks to the slave systems.
What did Shallice and Warrington’s study of KF suggest about STM?
Their findings suggested separate stores for auditory and visual stimuli within STM
What is retroactive interference?
Retroactive interference occurs when new memories block the recollection of old memories.
What is proactive interference?
Proactive interference occurs when old memories block the recollection of new memories.
What did McGeoch and McDonald (1931) find regarding interference?
They found that the more similar two memories were
What does retrieval failure suggest about forgetting?
Retrieval failure suggests that forgetting occurs when cues present at encoding are not present at recall.
What did Godden and Baddeley (1975) demonstrate about context-dependent forgetting?
They found that recall was better when encoding and recall conditions (e.g.
What did Carter and Cassaday (1998) show about state-dependent forgetting?
They found that recall was better when internal cues (such as using antihistamines) at encoding and recall were the same.
What did Loftus and Palmer (1974) demonstrate about leading questions?
They found that leading questions
What did Jacobs find about the capacity of STM for letters and digits?
Jacobs found the mean letter span was 7.3
What is a key issue with historical research on memory
such as Jacobs’ study?
What is a strength of Bahrick et al’s (1975) study on LTM?
The use of meaningful stimuli provides high ecological validity since the stimuli reflect real-life learning experiences.
What is a key issue with the Peterson et al. and Miller studies?
Their methodologies use artificial stimuli with low mundane realism
What did Craik and Watkins (1973) suggest about rehearsal in memory?
They suggested that elaborative rehearsal
What did Tulving propose about the different types of LTM?
Tulving proposed there are three types of LTM: episodic
What criticism is made about the multi-store model (MSM) regarding STM?
The MSM incorrectly represents STM as a single
What are the components of the visuo-spatial sketchpad in the working memory model?
The visuo-spatial sketchpad consists of the inner scribe and the visual cache.
What role does the episodic buffer play in the working memory model?
The episodic buffer integrates visual
What evidence supports the limited capacity of the central executive?
Studies of dual-task performance and neuroscience evidence (e.g.
What did Baddeley and Hitch find about interference in rugby players?
They found retroactive interference
How do artificial stimuli in interference studies affect their findings?
The use of artificial stimuli reduces the ecological validity and mundane realism of interference studies.
What are the two types of retrieval failure?
Context-dependent forgetting (external cues) and state-dependent forgetting (internal cues).
What did Baddeley argue about the real-life application of retrieval failure?
Baddeley argued that real-life cues are rarely as distinct as in experimental conditions
What did Godden and Baddeley find when testing recognition instead of recall?
They found no significant difference in recognition between matching and non-matching conditions
What is a leading question in eyewitness testimony (EWT) research?
A leading question is one that suggests a particular answer
What did Gabbert et al. (2003) find about post-event discussions?
They found that post-event discussions led to 71% inaccuracies in recall
What is ‘memory conformity’ in post-event discussions?
Memory conformity occurs when people align their memories with others due to believing the other person’s account is more accurate.
What did Anastasi and Rhodes argue about own-age bias in eyewitness testimony?
They argued that participants recall faces from their own age group with higher accuracy
What are demand characteristics
and how might they affect EWT research?
What did Johnson and Scott (1976) show about the weapon focus effect?
They found that participants in a high-anxiety condition (seeing a bloody knife) had 16% lower recall accuracy compared to a low-anxiety condition (seeing a pen).
What did Yuille and Cutshall (1986) find about the positive effects of anxiety on eyewitness recall?
They found that witnesses to a real-life shooting with high anxiety had 11% higher recall accuracy after 5 months than those with low anxiety.
What ethical issues arise in anxiety and EWT research?
Exposing participants to distressing events
What does the Yerkes-Dodson Law suggest about anxiety and eyewitness accuracy?
It suggests an inverted-U relationship
What is Pickel’s criticism of the weapon focus effect?
Pickel suggested that the weapon focus effect could be due to surprise rather than anxiety
What did Fisher et al. (1987) contribute to the cognitive interview?
They developed the enhanced cognitive interview
What did Kohnken et al. (1999) find about the cognitive interview’s accuracy?
They found that while the cognitive interview increased correct recall by 81%
What did Milne and Bull (2002) find about the stages of the cognitive interview?
They found that ‘context reinstatement’ and ‘report everything’ produced the greatest recall accuracy
What did Miller suggest about the chunking method in STM?
Miller suggested that chunking helps us recall information by grouping items into 7 +/- 2 units.
What is a limitation of Miller’s STM capacity research?
More recent research suggests that STM capacity may be closer to 4 chunks
What is a criticism of Jacobs’ research on STM capacity?
Jacobs’ study lacked standardisation and scientific control
What is a criticism of Peterson et al.’s study on STM duration?
The study used artificial stimuli (consonant syllables) with low ecological validity
What are the two types of rehearsal in memory processing?
Maintenance rehearsal (repetition) and elaborative rehearsal (linking new information to existing knowledge).
What are the key stores in the sensory register of the multi-store model (MSM)?
The sensory register contains a sub-store for each of the five senses
What determines whether information passes from the sensory register to STM?
Attention is required for information to move from the sensory register to short-term memory.
What is a weakness of the multi-store model (MSM) regarding LTM?
The MSM oversimplifies LTM by treating it as a single store
What does procedural memory store?
Procedural memory stores our knowledge of learned skills
How does retrieval occur in the multi-store model of memory (MSM)?
Retrieval occurs when information is transferred from long-term memory back into short-term memory.
What did Craik and Watkins (1973) argue about rehearsal in the MSM?
They argued that elaborative rehearsal is more important than prolonged rehearsal for transferring information to LTM.
What type of memory recall did Cohen and Squire distinguish?
They distinguished between declarative (episodic and semantic) and non-declarative (procedural) memory.
What do the cases of HM and Clive Wearing suggest about LTM?
They suggest that different types of LTM (procedural
What is the phonological loop in the working memory model (WMM)?
The phonological loop processes auditory information and allows for maintenance rehearsal of sounds.
What are the two components of the phonological loop in the WMM?
The phonological store (stores auditory information) and the articulatory process (allows for repetition of sounds).
What does the visuo-spatial sketchpad do in the working memory model?
It processes visual and spatial information
What is the role of the central executive in the WMM?
The central executive allocates tasks to the other slave systems and has a limited processing capacity.
What did Baddeley suggest about the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?
Baddeley suggested that the visuo-spatial sketchpad has a capacity of around 4-5 chunks.
What is a key strength of the working memory model (WMM)?
Studies of dual-task performance and neuroscience (e.g.
What is a key limitation of the central executive in the WMM?
The central executive is not well-defined
What did Tulving’s encoding specificity principle (ESP) suggest?
It suggested that cues present at encoding must be present at recall for successful memory retrieval.
What are the two types of cues involved in retrieval failure?
Context-dependent cues (external) and state-dependent cues (internal).
What did Baddeley argue about the real-life relevance of context effects in retrieval failure?
He argued that in real life
What is memory substitution according to Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) study?
Memory substitution occurs when misleading information changes a witness’s memory of an event.
What is the response-bias explanation in Loftus and Palmer’s study?
The response-bias explanation suggests that leading questions influence the eyewitness’s answer without altering their memory.
What did Pickel (1998) demonstrate about unusual stimuli and memory?
Pickel found that the weapon focus effect might be due to the unusualness of an object (e.g.
What is the ‘fight or flight’ response’s role in EWT accuracy?
The ‘fight or flight’ response increases attention to external cues
What is one ethical issue in Johnson and Scott’s anxiety and EWT research?
Participants were exposed to distressing situations
What is the ‘Please-U’ effect in eyewitness testimony studies?
The ‘Please-U’ effect occurs when participants give responses they believe the researcher wants to hear
How does the cognitive interview reduce the effects of misleading information?
By encouraging witnesses to report everything
What is the key aim of the enhanced cognitive interview?
The aim is to improve communication between the interviewer and the eyewitness by focusing on social dynamics and building rapport.
Why do some police forces struggle with using the cognitive interview?
It is time-consuming and requires specialist training
