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A Level Psychology > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What does coding refer to in memory?

A

Coding refers to the format or type of information stored in memory. In STM

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2
Q

What is the capacity of short-term memory (STM) according to Miller?

A

The capacity of STM is 7 +/- 2 items

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3
Q

What is the duration of short-term memory (STM) according to Petersen et al (1959)?

A

The duration of STM is 18-30 seconds.

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4
Q

What is the capacity of long-term memory (LTM)?

A

LTM has an unlimited capacity.

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5
Q

What did Bahrick et al (1975) discover about LTM duration?

A

Bahrick et al found that the duration of LTM is unlimited

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6
Q

What are the three main stores in the multi-store model of memory (MSM)?

A

The sensory register

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7
Q

How is information transferred from sensory register to STM in the MSM?

A

Information is transferred from the sensory register to STM through attention.

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8
Q

What type of coding does STM use according to Baddeley?

A

STM is acoustically coded.

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9
Q

What type of coding does LTM use according to Baddeley?

A

LTM is semantically coded.

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10
Q

What are the three types of long-term memory (LTM)?

A

Episodic

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11
Q

Which type of long-term memory (LTM) is recalled unconsciously?

A

Procedural memories are recalled unconsciously.

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12
Q

What did Petersen et al. (1988) discover about semantic and episodic memory?

A

Semantic memories are recalled from the left prefrontal cortex

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13
Q

What is the working memory model (WMM)?

A

The WMM suggests STM is made up of the central executive

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14
Q

What is the role of the central executive in the working memory model (WMM)?

A

The central executive is an attentional process that allocates tasks to the slave systems.

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15
Q

What did Shallice and Warrington’s study of KF suggest about STM?

A

Their findings suggested separate stores for auditory and visual stimuli within STM

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16
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

Retroactive interference occurs when new memories block the recollection of old memories.

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17
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

Proactive interference occurs when old memories block the recollection of new memories.

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18
Q

What did McGeoch and McDonald (1931) find regarding interference?

A

They found that the more similar two memories were

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19
Q

What does retrieval failure suggest about forgetting?

A

Retrieval failure suggests that forgetting occurs when cues present at encoding are not present at recall.

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20
Q

What did Godden and Baddeley (1975) demonstrate about context-dependent forgetting?

A

They found that recall was better when encoding and recall conditions (e.g.

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21
Q

What did Carter and Cassaday (1998) show about state-dependent forgetting?

A

They found that recall was better when internal cues (such as using antihistamines) at encoding and recall were the same.

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22
Q

What did Loftus and Palmer (1974) demonstrate about leading questions?

A

They found that leading questions

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23
Q

What did Jacobs find about the capacity of STM for letters and digits?

A

Jacobs found the mean letter span was 7.3

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24
Q

What is a key issue with historical research on memory

A

such as Jacobs’ study?

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25
Q

What is a strength of Bahrick et al’s (1975) study on LTM?

A

The use of meaningful stimuli provides high ecological validity since the stimuli reflect real-life learning experiences.

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26
Q

What is a key issue with the Peterson et al. and Miller studies?

A

Their methodologies use artificial stimuli with low mundane realism

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27
Q

What did Craik and Watkins (1973) suggest about rehearsal in memory?

A

They suggested that elaborative rehearsal

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28
Q

What did Tulving propose about the different types of LTM?

A

Tulving proposed there are three types of LTM: episodic

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29
Q

What criticism is made about the multi-store model (MSM) regarding STM?

A

The MSM incorrectly represents STM as a single

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30
Q

What are the components of the visuo-spatial sketchpad in the working memory model?

A

The visuo-spatial sketchpad consists of the inner scribe and the visual cache.

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31
Q

What role does the episodic buffer play in the working memory model?

A

The episodic buffer integrates visual

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32
Q

What evidence supports the limited capacity of the central executive?

A

Studies of dual-task performance and neuroscience evidence (e.g.

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33
Q

What did Baddeley and Hitch find about interference in rugby players?

A

They found retroactive interference

34
Q

How do artificial stimuli in interference studies affect their findings?

A

The use of artificial stimuli reduces the ecological validity and mundane realism of interference studies.

35
Q

What are the two types of retrieval failure?

A

Context-dependent forgetting (external cues) and state-dependent forgetting (internal cues).

36
Q

What did Baddeley argue about the real-life application of retrieval failure?

A

Baddeley argued that real-life cues are rarely as distinct as in experimental conditions

37
Q

What did Godden and Baddeley find when testing recognition instead of recall?

A

They found no significant difference in recognition between matching and non-matching conditions

38
Q

What is a leading question in eyewitness testimony (EWT) research?

A

A leading question is one that suggests a particular answer

39
Q

What did Gabbert et al. (2003) find about post-event discussions?

A

They found that post-event discussions led to 71% inaccuracies in recall

40
Q

What is ‘memory conformity’ in post-event discussions?

A

Memory conformity occurs when people align their memories with others due to believing the other person’s account is more accurate.

41
Q

What did Anastasi and Rhodes argue about own-age bias in eyewitness testimony?

A

They argued that participants recall faces from their own age group with higher accuracy

42
Q

What are demand characteristics

A

and how might they affect EWT research?

43
Q

What did Johnson and Scott (1976) show about the weapon focus effect?

A

They found that participants in a high-anxiety condition (seeing a bloody knife) had 16% lower recall accuracy compared to a low-anxiety condition (seeing a pen).

44
Q

What did Yuille and Cutshall (1986) find about the positive effects of anxiety on eyewitness recall?

A

They found that witnesses to a real-life shooting with high anxiety had 11% higher recall accuracy after 5 months than those with low anxiety.

45
Q

What ethical issues arise in anxiety and EWT research?

A

Exposing participants to distressing events

46
Q

What does the Yerkes-Dodson Law suggest about anxiety and eyewitness accuracy?

A

It suggests an inverted-U relationship

47
Q

What is Pickel’s criticism of the weapon focus effect?

A

Pickel suggested that the weapon focus effect could be due to surprise rather than anxiety

48
Q

What did Fisher et al. (1987) contribute to the cognitive interview?

A

They developed the enhanced cognitive interview

49
Q

What did Kohnken et al. (1999) find about the cognitive interview’s accuracy?

A

They found that while the cognitive interview increased correct recall by 81%

50
Q

What did Milne and Bull (2002) find about the stages of the cognitive interview?

A

They found that ‘context reinstatement’ and ‘report everything’ produced the greatest recall accuracy

51
Q

What did Miller suggest about the chunking method in STM?

A

Miller suggested that chunking helps us recall information by grouping items into 7 +/- 2 units.

52
Q

What is a limitation of Miller’s STM capacity research?

A

More recent research suggests that STM capacity may be closer to 4 chunks

53
Q

What is a criticism of Jacobs’ research on STM capacity?

A

Jacobs’ study lacked standardisation and scientific control

54
Q

What is a criticism of Peterson et al.’s study on STM duration?

A

The study used artificial stimuli (consonant syllables) with low ecological validity

55
Q

What are the two types of rehearsal in memory processing?

A

Maintenance rehearsal (repetition) and elaborative rehearsal (linking new information to existing knowledge).

56
Q

What are the key stores in the sensory register of the multi-store model (MSM)?

A

The sensory register contains a sub-store for each of the five senses

57
Q

What determines whether information passes from the sensory register to STM?

A

Attention is required for information to move from the sensory register to short-term memory.

58
Q

What is a weakness of the multi-store model (MSM) regarding LTM?

A

The MSM oversimplifies LTM by treating it as a single store

59
Q

What does procedural memory store?

A

Procedural memory stores our knowledge of learned skills

60
Q

How does retrieval occur in the multi-store model of memory (MSM)?

A

Retrieval occurs when information is transferred from long-term memory back into short-term memory.

61
Q

What did Craik and Watkins (1973) argue about rehearsal in the MSM?

A

They argued that elaborative rehearsal is more important than prolonged rehearsal for transferring information to LTM.

62
Q

What type of memory recall did Cohen and Squire distinguish?

A

They distinguished between declarative (episodic and semantic) and non-declarative (procedural) memory.

63
Q

What do the cases of HM and Clive Wearing suggest about LTM?

A

They suggest that different types of LTM (procedural

64
Q

What is the phonological loop in the working memory model (WMM)?

A

The phonological loop processes auditory information and allows for maintenance rehearsal of sounds.

65
Q

What are the two components of the phonological loop in the WMM?

A

The phonological store (stores auditory information) and the articulatory process (allows for repetition of sounds).

66
Q

What does the visuo-spatial sketchpad do in the working memory model?

A

It processes visual and spatial information

67
Q

What is the role of the central executive in the WMM?

A

The central executive allocates tasks to the other slave systems and has a limited processing capacity.

68
Q

What did Baddeley suggest about the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

A

Baddeley suggested that the visuo-spatial sketchpad has a capacity of around 4-5 chunks.

69
Q

What is a key strength of the working memory model (WMM)?

A

Studies of dual-task performance and neuroscience (e.g.

70
Q

What is a key limitation of the central executive in the WMM?

A

The central executive is not well-defined

71
Q

What did Tulving’s encoding specificity principle (ESP) suggest?

A

It suggested that cues present at encoding must be present at recall for successful memory retrieval.

72
Q

What are the two types of cues involved in retrieval failure?

A

Context-dependent cues (external) and state-dependent cues (internal).

73
Q

What did Baddeley argue about the real-life relevance of context effects in retrieval failure?

A

He argued that in real life

74
Q

What is memory substitution according to Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) study?

A

Memory substitution occurs when misleading information changes a witness’s memory of an event.

75
Q

What is the response-bias explanation in Loftus and Palmer’s study?

A

The response-bias explanation suggests that leading questions influence the eyewitness’s answer without altering their memory.

76
Q

What did Pickel (1998) demonstrate about unusual stimuli and memory?

A

Pickel found that the weapon focus effect might be due to the unusualness of an object (e.g.

77
Q

What is the ‘fight or flight’ response’s role in EWT accuracy?

A

The ‘fight or flight’ response increases attention to external cues

78
Q

What is one ethical issue in Johnson and Scott’s anxiety and EWT research?

A

Participants were exposed to distressing situations

79
Q

What is the ‘Please-U’ effect in eyewitness testimony studies?

A

The ‘Please-U’ effect occurs when participants give responses they believe the researcher wants to hear

80
Q

How does the cognitive interview reduce the effects of misleading information?

A

By encouraging witnesses to report everything

81
Q

What is the key aim of the enhanced cognitive interview?

A

The aim is to improve communication between the interviewer and the eyewitness by focusing on social dynamics and building rapport.

82
Q

Why do some police forces struggle with using the cognitive interview?

A

It is time-consuming and requires specialist training

A Level Psychology (9 decks)

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