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(1) Psych Ms R > Psychopathology > Flashcards

Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

Abnormality in psychology

A

Hard to define by psychologists as they are unable to agree on mental disorders/ clashing views

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2
Q

Deviation from social norms

A

Social norms are different for every society. Unwritten rules people abide by. Used as a way to define abnormal behaviour; eg. Going against societal norms

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3
Q

Socially deviant meaning

A

Labels people with undesirable behaviours in society

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4
Q

Social norms

A

Are specific to different cultures

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5
Q

Deviation from social norms: AO3 strengths

A

• definition allows for developmental norms; eg. (Normal for a baby to be held everywhere by parent but abnormal for old person to be held)

• definition gives a social dimension to idea of abnormality

• protects + helps society; help available

• distinguishes between normal& abnormal

’

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6
Q

Deviation from social norms: AO3 limitations

A

• changes overtime; defini doesn’t explain abnormality changing overtime; eg homosexuality now normal

• ethnocentric; definition is based on white western ppl, COCHRANE found that black ppl were most likely to be diagnosed w schizophrenia than white ( ma’am’s example, spiritual speak to themselves)

• cultural differences; definition doesn’t make it clear how to deal w normal/ abnormal behaviours

• individualism ; definition doesn’t account for people who don’t conform to societal norms but are normal. Doesn’t t take into account individualistic behaviours

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7
Q

statistical infrequency def

A

Most common behaviour is classified as ‘normal’ and uncommon/rare behaviour is classified as ‘abnormal’

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8
Q

wts an example of,ethod using statistical infrequency

A
  • normal distribution curve which shows population avg
  • mean median mode r all on highest points where most common behaviours shown
  • behaviour at either end show extremes
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9
Q

AO3 using stat infrequency tools

A

pros:
- Useful diagnostic tool for clinicians, as it provides a definitive point at which a measure becomes abnormal, i.e. results of blood tests, if certain parts of the blood reach a threshold, it can be classified as abnormal and relative treatments can be put in place to help the individual

  • Objective- so uses scientific traits to put definitions in place instead of potential biases from investigators subjective povs

cons:
-Does not differentiate between desirable/undesirable behaviours

-Unclear as to who is qualified to set the definitive point where a behaviour becomes abnormal, therefore can be difficult to interpret

  • some psychopathologies r common e.g depression x anxiety NHS found 175 PPL WHO TOOK surveys qualified for common mental health so definition isn’t appropriate when most society struggle w
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10
Q

failure to function adequately def

A

When behaviour does not allow a person to meet the demands of everyday life

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11
Q

6 categories of failure to function adequately & who came up w them PMUOIV

A

Rosenhan et al

  • Personal distress
  • Maladaptive behaviour- behave in ways that wont help them in future e.g shopkeeper being rude to customers
  • Unconventionality
  • Observer discomfort
  • Irrationality
  • Violation of moral standards
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12
Q

AO3 failure to function adequately def

A

pro:
- respects individual & their own personal exp other definitions dont do this

con:
- decision ab whether person functioning adequately is subjective may b biased pov
- not all maladaptive behaviour= mental illness e.g ppl engaging in extreme sports risk future of their health but cannot say they r mentally ill jus coz of this
- definition only included ppl UNABLE to cope, some psychopaths can function in society in ways that can benefit them. e.g… (Having lower empathy can lead to success in business and politics. However, while
they feel no distress themselves, psychopathy often has negative implications for the people around them.)

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13
Q

deviation from social norms def

A
  • Society has a set of unwritten rules/expectations - those that deviate from those are classified as abnormal.

These rules are highly specific to the culture, time and context.

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14
Q

AO3 defining abnormality due to social norms

A

pro:

  • doesnt impose western view of abnormality on other cultures so not ethnocentric

con:

  • can b inappro to define ppl who move to new culture as abnormal according to new cultural norms ppl from afro carribean 7x more likely to classfied as schiz in uk than ppl in uk. coz of category failure
  • can b seen as repressing/punishing ppl who want to express their individuality and repressing people who do not conform to the repressive norms of their culture. the World Health Organisation declassified homosexuality as a mental illness in 1992 and
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15
Q

deviation from ideal mental health def

A
  • Defines what ideal mental health is and deviation from that is classified as abnormal
    Ideal mental health is defined as
  • comes from humanistic approach
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16
Q

6 features of ideal mental health 4 deviation expl & who its from EARSA

A
  • Jahoda

Environmental mastery: ability to adapt and thrive in new situations.

Autonomy: ability to act independently and trust in one’s own abilities.

Resistance to stress: internal strength to cope with anxiety caused by daily life.

Self-actualisation: ability to reach one’s potential through personal growth.
Positive attitude towards oneself: Characterised by high self-esteem and self-respect.

Accurate perception of reality: ability to see the world as it is without being distorted by personal biases.

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17
Q

AO3 deviation from ideal mh def

A

pro:
- Positive HOLISTIC outlook on abnormality, something not present in other definitions, which focus on negative aspects of abnormality

con:
- comes from western humanistic approach so may have cultural bias
- unrealistic expectations
- some criteria r impossible to measure so subjective e.g how can u tell someone has fully self actualised & not jus lying
- no clear cut off points

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18
Q

wt r 3 emotional characteristics of phobia AF

A

anxiety- uncomfortable high persistent state of arousal

fear- intense emotional state linked to fight or flight response

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19
Q

wt r 3 behavioural characteristics of phobia FAP

A

Failure function adequately- difficult 2 take part in real normal activities e.g work school

  • Avoidance- physically adapting normal behaviour to avoid phobia

Panic- uncontrollable physical response

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20
Q

wt wt r 3 cognitive characteristics of phobia IRCC

A

Irratonal thoights- negative thoughts mental processes thinking someones gonna come for them

reduced cog capacity- cannot concentrate on day 2 day life coz of excessive focus and attention to potential danger

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21
Q

wt r 3 behavioural characteristics of depression

A

reduction in activity levels: lethargy= lack of energy to perform everyday required tasks e.g basic hygiene
anhedonia= lacking pleasure in things that were once enjoyable

change in eating behaviour= often results signif weight loss/gain

increase in aggression= can be towards other ppl but usually results in self harm

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22
Q

wt is lethargy & anhedonia

A

lethargy= losing motivation/lacking energy to perform everyday tasks e.g showering

anhedonia= losing pleasure/enjoyment in things once enjoyed

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23
Q

wt r 2 emotional characteristics of depression

A

sadness

guilt

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24
Q

wt r 2 cognitive characteristics of depression

A
  • poor concentration= lack of energy/overhtinking results in difficulty to concentrate in everyday tasks
  • negative schemas= automatic negative biases when thinking ab themselves or the world
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25
Q

def OCD

A

obsessions which r constant intrusive thoughts causing high levels anxiety
compulsions r behavioural response to deal w obsessive thoughts

26
Q

wt r 3 behavioural characteristics of OCD

A
  • compulsions- behaviours performed repeatedly to reduce anxiety; however, any anxiety reduction is only temporary. e.g. checking behaviours
  • avoidance- take or resist actions to avoid being in the presence of objects/ situations that trigger obsessions.

Social impairment: not participating in enjoyable social activities. This social withdrawal is often due to difficulty leaving the house without triggering obsessions or the need to carry out
compulsions becomes time-consuming.

27
Q

wt r 2 emootional characteristics of OCD

A

anxiety- high uncomfortable state of arousal making it hard to relax comes from obsessive worst case scenario thinking

depression- constant long lasting sadness coz of not being able to control compulsions may leave social gatherings coz of this leading to social isolation to prevent triggers

28
Q

wt r 3 cognitive characteristics of OCD

A

obsessions= continual uncontrollable thoughts thinking to worst case scenarios

hypervigillence= always being extremely careful and observant where sufferer looking for source of their anxiety

selective attention/attention bias= so focused on object connected to obsessions that u stop focusing on environment/convos

29
Q

wts 2 approaches that explain phobias

A
  • behaviour approach: phobic behaviours r learnt via interacting w environment so experience

2 models
- classical conditioning: learnt via association
- operant: phobia maintained via operant conditioning

30
Q

describe how phobias can be learnt via classical conditioning:

A

phobic object (bee)= NS neutral stimulus causes NR so no response

  • UCS (pain of being stung) produces unconditioned FEAR RESPONSE so that’s the UCR
  • association formed when bee paired w UCS so then bee becomes CS producing CR
  • phobias can be generlised so conditioned fear response can be experienced in presence of stimuli similar to conditioned response
31
Q

describe how phobias can be learnt via operant conditioning:

A
  • avoiding phobic behaviour leads to reduction in anxiety= pleasure
  • this reinforcement strengthens phobia making person more likely to avoid phobic object in future
32
Q

wts the 2 process model who made it whats it ab

A

MOWER
- acquisition= through classical conditioning learning through assosciation

  • maintained via operant conditioning
33
Q

AO3 behavioural approach to explaining phobias

A
  • Watson & Mayer Little Albert: introduced to rat 1st time showed no phobic response however when paired rat w large metal pole creating loud noise behind little alberts head albert was scared and phobic response was formed between rat & produced fear response demonstrating phobias can be acquired through association. generalisation of this phobia was shown as little Albert was also scared by sight of furry animals e.g dogs
  • has good real life application e.g behaviourist theory of aquisition & maintenance help put together practailly into counter-conditioning therapies systematic desensitisation and flooding. these shown to be effective so mean behavipiryst has truth
34
Q

CA for little Albert

A
  • empirical evidence:
  • but it was a case study so findings were idiographic thus cant establish general laws of psych low eco validity so cnt be generalised to all of society
  • Humans also don’t often display phobic responses to objects that cause the most pain in day-to-day life, such as knives or cars. However phobias of snakes and spiders are more common. These phobias may be better explained by evolutionary theory, as these are dangers that many of our evolutionary ancestors faced. Those with a natural, instinctual fear would have been more likely to survive and reproduce, suggesting phobias are hereditary.
  • only 7% children w phobia to water could recall a negative exp w water 56% of parents told researchers that phobia had been present w child from first encounter w water suggesting behaviourist approach doesn’t fully explain phobias
  • showed while conditioning events like dog bites common in ppts w dog phobias (56%), they were jus as common in ppts w no phobias (66%)idk
35
Q

what is reciprocal inhibition

A
  • fear & relaxation r 2 antagonistic emotions if therspidy helps client hold phobic object w no fear they’ve been successfully counter conditioned
36
Q

whats systematic desensitisation 4 steps

A

1) therapist introduces relaxation breathing techniques

2) client creates anxiety hierachy from least 2 most feared

3) ppt exposed 2 each level of hierarchy starting w least anxiety to most. client must relax at each stage for therapist to move to next level n

4)when client can hold phobic object w no fear, the association is extinct and new association made w relaxing

37
Q

wt do behavioural therapists assume

A
  • phobias are learnt via association
38
Q

wt is flooding technique 3 steps

A
  • attempt to counter phobia by immediate + full exposure to max level of phobic stimulus (top level of anxiety hierachy)

1) start w full exposure to phobic stimulus which will cause extreme fear response (screaming crying) in ppt–>

2) eventually ppt becomes exhausted and calms down in presence of phobic object coz fear response requires energy

3) if ppt wants phobic stimulus taken away before calming down the removal of stimulus will decrease anxiety and due to removal of stimulus and phobia will be reinforced

39
Q

ao3 using behavioural therapy for phobias pros & cons

A

: client controls systematic desensitisation so its a more enjoyable exp as they feel more in control w anxiety BUT
coz of this its a slow process so some may prefer flooding
BUT due to stressful nature of flooding its not appropriate for everyone… aLSO is phobias dont bring relaxation may cause phobias to be reinforced. also ethical issues w flooding

-1: principles were applied to empirical research using virtual reality exposure therapy: 83% exposed to spiders virtually showed clinically significant improvement compared to 0% in control group .. meaning principles of systematic desensitisation and using virtual reality allows for wide range of phobias 2 be treated

  • some may use drugs such as antidepressants to treat instead as they do alleviate some phobic responses but some may argue this is done to calm ppt down & would usually be followed by therapies
  • also results may b limited to controlled environments as nit realistic
40
Q

wt does cog approach say ab depression

A

irrational thought due ti maladaptive internal mental processes

41
Q

whats a schema

A

mental framework/expectation built on experiences

Schemas allow us to quickly process large amounts of sensory information and make automatic assumptions and responses.

Negative schemas result in automatically negative cognitive biases.

42
Q

wts becks negative triad SWF

A
  • Three Schemas with a persistent automatic
    negative bias.
  • The Self: Aka self-schemas, feeling “inadequate or unworthy.’
  • The World: Thinking people are “hostile or threatening.”
  • The Future: Thinking “things will always turn out badly.”
    This can lead to avoidance, social withdrawal and inaction
43
Q

when does negative triad develop

A
  • childhood but provides framework for persistent biases in adult hood leading 2 cog distortions
44
Q

2 examples of cognitive distortions - triad

A
  • over generalisation: one negative exp makes person think same will always happen
  • selective abstraction: mentally filtering out positive experiences and focusing on negative
45
Q

ellis ABC model

A
  • A: Activating event. It can be anything that happens to
    someone. (large or small)
  • B: Belief. For people without depression beliefs about A are rational. People with depression have irrational beliefs.
  • C: Consequence. Rational beliefs lead to positive
    consequences; irrational beliefs lead to negative C
46
Q

wt is mustabartory thinking

A

ellis

  • The consequence of not accepting we don’t live in a perfect world. “There are three musts that hold us back: I must do well. You must treat me well. And the world must be easy.” - Ellis. The fact that we fail to achieve unrealistic goals other people don’t behave the way we want them to, or an unexpected
    event happens and ruins our plans leads to disappointment.
47
Q

AO3 for cog theories explaining depression

A

pro:
Cognitive theories that explain depression have led to highly effective cognitive therapies; March showed CBT had an effectiveness rate of 81% after 36 weeks of treatment, the same as drug therapy. The fact these treatments are successful suggests the underlying cognitive explanations are valid.

con: ppl w depression also experience anger, + ppl w bipolar depression experience manic phases, times
X when they feel extremely happy, overly excited, confident and focused. These features of some types of depression are hard to explain with theories like Beck’s that explain depression as due to negative schemas, as schemas are resistant to change.

Family studies and genetic research suggests a predisposition to depression is inherited, likely genes that influence the activity of neurochemicals like serotonin in the brain; also, the effectiveness of drug treatments like SSRIs suggests the cognitive
explanation is not complete, and there is a biological aspect to depression.

48
Q

1 cog approach therapies to treat depression BECK CBT

A

CBT- cog behavioural therapy: Talking therapy which focuses on identifying and challenging irrational thoughts
Focuses on present experiences
Client is taught dream catching
Irrational thoughts are challenged
+ reconstructed to avoid distortion by a negative triad
Client acts like a scientist + tests irrational thought via homework and evaluating the evidence
Client is given homework

49
Q

AO3 CBT

A

March et al, sample of depressed individuals were placed in one of three conditions, GIVEN CBT, anti- depressants or a combination of both.

81% of those given CBT saw an improvement in symptoms
81% of those given anti-depressants saw an improvement in symptoms
86% of those given both treatments saw an improvement in symptoms

Provides evidence that CBT is equally as effective as drugs, without the negative impacts of drugs, such as side effects and addiction
Also the fact that there is a higher success rate with both treatments points to the positives of both, being
complementary to one another, rather than being separate treatments. Anti-depressants could be used to provide sufferers with the energy and motivation to be able to engage fully in CBT to increase effectiveness.

-Researchers have argued that CBT is no more effective than other talking therapies, and its rather the connection that is formed with the therapist in being able to talk through issues that is the most beneficial part.

-Current focus of CBT may neglect previous factors which may of contributed to the development of
depression (e.g. socio-economic factors, family issues, upbringing)

very expensive but cost benefit analysis coz some think its worth it

50
Q

ellis REBT therapy

A

Rational emotive behavioural therapy
Patient disputes irrational thoughts
Effects of this Feelings that are produced

Logical Disputing: irrational thoughts don’t make sense
Pragmatic disputing: irrational thoughts provide no value
Empirical disputing: no evidence for irrational thoughts

These thoughts are challenged and patient puts this into practice in real-life and reflects on the results
Focus on being active and tackling any cognitive obstacles

51
Q

diff between REBT and CBT

A

becks CBT client figures out their own irrational thoughts in ellis REBT therapist explains the irrationality of the thoughts directly to patient

52
Q

REBT EVAL

A

+ Effective therapy, Ellis claimed a 90% success rate with average treatment completion of 27 sessions

-Individual differences, REBT not useful for those resistant to change and have irrational beliefs which are rigid

both REBT and CBT makes client speak ab traumatic events from past they may not want to remember anymore

53
Q

genetic explanation OCD

A

there’s no 1 gene that codes for OCD but thought that vulnerability to it inherited by both parents

  • but many candidate genes hv been identified in ppl w OCD so making it polygenic so old requires many genetic changes
54
Q

AO3 for how OCD inherited

A
  • comes from family and twin studies.
  • prevalence rate of OCD in the general population is 2%, the concordance rate between someone w OCD + stranger is also 2%
  • but w OCD, the more closely genetically related ppl= higher concordance;
  • 1st degree relatives= 10% concordance, and non-identical/ dizygotic twins have 31% concordance (50% shared genes).

-Identical/monozygotic
twins share 100% of their genes and have a 68% concordance rate. This suggests a predisposition to OCD is inherited.

  • but coz its not 100% COULD mean there r environmental factors to linking to nurture vs nature debate so lowk reductionist & non holistic approach
55
Q

neural explanation OCD

A

= biochemical causes, imbalance of neurotransmitters and neurones

56
Q

wt neurotransmitter= OCD & how

A

low levels of serotonin= obsessive thoughts

  • likely due to it being removed too quickly from the synapse before it has been able to transmit its signal / influence postsynaptic cell.
57
Q

explain process neurotransmitter uptake for OCD

A

Serotonin and other neurotransmitters are chemical messengers; presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters, and receptors on the postsynaptic neuron detect these; if the signal is strong enough, then the message is passed on, the neurotransmitters detach from the receptors and are taken back to the presynaptic neuron through a process called reuptake. It seems this process happens too quickly in people with OCD, leading to reduced serotonin levels in the
svnapse. The SERT gene is the gene responsible for serotonin transportation in the synapse.

58
Q

explain neural processes for OCD

A

The “worry circuit”. A set of brain structures including the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) (rational decision making), the basal ganglia system, especially the caudate nucleus, and the thalamus.

Communication between these structures in the worry circuit appears to be overactive in people with OCD In normal functioning, the basal ganglia filter out minor worries coming from the OFC, but if this area is hyperactive, even small worries get to the thalamus, which is then passed back to the OFC,
forming a loop (recurring obsessive thoughts)

Repetitive motor functions (compulsions) are an attempt to break this loop. While carrying out the compulsion may give temporary relief,
the hyperactive basal ganglia will soon resume the worry circuit.

Parahippocampal gyrus, an area of cortex close to the hippocampus on the brain’s underside, is also linked to OCD. It is responsible for regulating and processing unpleasant emotions and seen 2 function abnormally 4 OCD

59
Q

AO3 for biological explanation 4 OCD

A

Nestadt (2010) high concordance rate between close family members. Non-identical twins have 31% concordance, and identical twins have 68%.
MZ and DZ twins grow up sharing similar environments like food, upbringing and education, and life events like bereavement or parental divorce. This suggests that the additional shared DNA is responsible for the increased concordance

PET scans show hyperactivity in orbitofrontal cortex= shows neural explanation
^^^BUT THIS evidence is correlational & researchers cant establish cause & effect rsp is it jus like this coz they have OCD or does this make them get OCD

CON
The correlation in family and twin studies does not automatically equal causation. may not be the shared genetics behind the high concordance rates; closer family members also share similar environments; identical monozygotic twins may be treated more similarly because they look alike, compared to dizygotic, non-identical twins. As the concordance rate for identical twins at 68%, not 100%, the level we would expect for an entirely genetically determined psychological feature, so there must be some role for the environment

The Diathesis stress response may be a more valid explanation for OCD than biological processes alone. Individuals inherit a genetic vulnerability to OCD (diathesis). However, the disorder does not develop unless there is an environmental factor (stressor), such as a traumatic life experience. Cromer showed 54% of 265 participants with OCD reported at least one traumatic life event, and those with
traumatic life events reported increased severity of OCD symptoms; this demonstrates an environmental aspect of OCD.

A meta-analysis by Soomro demonstrated SSRIs are more effective than placebos, suggesting there is a biological aspect to OCD, however despite altering levels of serotonin in the synapse within hours, these drugs take weeks to reduce symptoms, and 40% to
60% of patients show no or just partial symptom improvement. These findings suggest low levels of serotonin have a role to play in
OCD but are not the sole cause of OCD.

60
Q

drug therapy OCD

A
  • SSRIS antidepressant fluoxetine

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors.

They only influence (select) serotonin in the brain; as reuptake inhibitors, they inhibit reuptake process in the synapse. Therefore serotonin is still present in the synaptic cleft and continues to stimulate the postsynaptic neuron. This decreases anxiety by normalising the activity of the worry circuit.

  • takes 3/4 months to start working but not effective 4 everyone some may b prescribed anti anxiety drugs increasing noradrenaline but these can have worse side effects
61
Q

AO3 drug therapy for OCD

A

Soomro conducted a meta-analysis combining the data from 17 studies that compared SSRIs to placebos. 3097 ppt results showed that SSRIs significantly reduced symptoms of OCD compared to placebos between 6 and 17 weeks post-treatment. These results suggest drug therapy is effective in the short term

con:

Goldacre points out most research studies on drug therapies r conducted by pharmaceutical companies that created them. means companies have a financial interest in showing the drugs are effective; this, and the file drawer problem (the fact that many negative results stay unpublished), means any metanalysis may be skewed, and drug therapies
may not be as effective as claimed.

PRO:
- much cheaper economically on NHS than providing CBT/ 1;1 therapy which is also time consuming

CON:

patients may prefer CBT coz of drugs side effects

also drug therapies only cover / mask root cause of y OCD occurs CBT can help address root cause

(1) Psych Ms R (14 decks)

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