GENDER Flashcards
Sex & gender androgyny BSI
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- sex=biological (anatomical & genetic diff) between males & females. SEX ASSIGNED AT BIRTH from conception due 2 inheritance of chromosomes XY=male XX=female
- gender= psychological (behavioural) distinc between masc & fem personality trains. may not match biological sex
- sex role stereotype= set of expect of appropriate male/female bhvrs shared by culture. used as short cut in understanding wt bhvrs expected from ourselves & others. psych argue that developm of sex role stereotypes come from one/mix cognitive/slt & psychdynam processes
- androgyny= having high & balanced mix of both masc & feminine bhvrs e.g very kind/very sporty… UNDIFF= low on both traits. SEXTYPED= when gender & sex match CROSS-SEX TYPED= when gender & sex dont matcg
- bem sex role inventiry made 2 measure androgyny via self report. ppt rate themselves on 7 point scale on 6p characteristics/traits 20 masc 20 femin 20 neutral. scored on 2 dimensions masc/feminine & androgynous/undifferentiated
- bem argued androgynous ppl r more psych heakthy than other types higher self esteem/rsp
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+ BEM measuring 561 male x 356 female students usinf BEMSEXINVE q found fem & masc personality traits r grouped w most males sex typed as masculine & females sex typed as feminine. 34% males & 27% fem classified as androgynoys. SUGGESTS MASC & FEM PERSONALITY TRAITS R DISTINCT & HIGH PROPORTION OF INDIVIDS HAVE HIGH & balanced level of both masc x fem traits CA= self report..social desirability
BSRI shown high test retest reliability & when ppt do test again they get same score. consistency overtime in results= BSRI is accurate measure of gender & gender identity is stable CA= issues w temporal validity. criteria created over 40 yrs ago so may not match anymore to current understanding of gender due 2 changes in socal roles. feminine categories r “childlike” so not accurate rep
- bems original rsrch didnt include category for ppl w few masc/fem traits. UNDIFF type ADDED BY BEM IN DEVELOPMENT OF HER THEORY THUS QUESTIONS SURRODUNDING VALIDITY & BSRI oversimplified gender
sex role stereotypes AO3
+ study conducted new mothers recorded playing w babies. actor babies male & female but dressed in sex appropriate clothing. range of toys classed as masc & fem provided 2 givw 2 babies. found that hammer (masc) only offered 2 baby drssed as boy and doll only to girl. also mums were more encouraging physical actiivits from males.s suggests adults have sex role stereotypes ab appropriate gendered behaviour & socialise child in2 that behaviour from infancy ……. CA= theory may lack temporal validity. in modern society child reaing norms changed. often less focus on encouraging children 2 perfrom sex types gender bhvr. and neutral clothes and toys available so may mean theorries around existnce sex role sterotypes less revealnt today
mead- anthropological rsrch in 3 tribal societies MUNDUGUMOR w both males & females displaying highly agg masc bhv. Arapesh w both sexes showinf fem caring bhvrs. AND TCHAMBULI W FEMALES DOMINANT & MALES EMOTIONAL & RESPONSIBLE FOR RESRING CHILD= shows cultural forces are responsible for gender stereotypes so much gebdered bhvr learnt by socialisation not innate biological process
role of chromosomes hormones
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- chromosmes r 46 (23pairs) biological threads (DNA) inside nucleus of cells. thyey carry genetic incfo (genotype) that codes for physical & bhvr characteristics (phenotype)
- chromosome role in sex= 23rd chromosome pair determines biologival sex. XX= female XY= male. Testes develop due 2 area on Y chromosome (sex determining region) testes produce androgens (male sex hormones) resulting in other sex diff
- chromosomes role in gender= genetic diff between biologically male & female chromosomes r thought 2 be result in observable behaviour variations, this is by coding 4 diff neuronal strcutures & hormone lvls tht go on 2 influence gender exp
- hormones.. testosterone 10x higher in male puberty creates changes in males. also linked 2 aggression and masc nature. oestrogen= femasle sex hormone menstraul cycle x linked to maternal caring bhvr
- oxytocin= hormones produced in higher quantity in females (same amount in male x female during intercourse) = resposnib;e for mother binding 2 child attachment
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study on childhood identity data collected 8000 twin pairs DZ & MZ as part of longitudinal study in netherlands. data showed 70% variance in gender identity was coz of genetic factors… suggesting atypical gender develop is hertiable. results showed girls w female co-twins more liikely 2 show cross gender (e.g opp gender) bhvr than girls w male-co twin. COUNTER TO WHAT WED EXPECT BY SLT coz wed expect girls to use brother twin as model & imitate them further suggesting Atypical os biological not psychological process
animal rsrch shown female rats stopped displaying caring bhvr towards bbies when given drug 2 stop oxytocin & oestrogen. male castrated mice reduced aggreds biting that returned 2 normal levels (increased) when injected w testosterone. and female mice injected w testosterone bit more suggetss HORMONAL CHANGES RESULT IN CHANGES 2 SEX TYPED BEHAVIOUR…CA non gener
PRACTICAL EVALUATIONS of how hormones influce gendered bhvr such as maternal can help develop of hormonal clinical treatments for parenting disorders & heigteed aggression
atypical; sex chrosmoens
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- VAIRATIONS ON 23RD PAIR OF CHROMOSOMES
- xxy klinefelters 1/660 males reduced facial hair tall long limbs small testes development of breast tissue. psychological characteriustics= dyslexia can be passibe but easy 2 upsey showing aggressibe outbursts
- XO turners 1/2000 girls. physical cha= no periods, short, limited breast develop, wide chests, short webbed neck, immature appearance. psych chara= high levels verbal skills (reading/writing) low visual ability & socially immature
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+ srch on ppl has led 2 medical interventions 2 improve lives of ppl w conditions. e.g oestrogen therapry in females w turners shown 2 normalise physical dveloppment during pubetry increasing height & breast develop. testosterone therapy for klein= facial hair improves energy levels & learning & behavioural so practcial appli = improves lives
rsrch comparing ppl w A-typical chromoomes 2 typical patterns allows rsearcher 2 investigate biological origins 4 sexual development & gendered behaviour in humans. …. CA= hwoever observations such as girls w TURNERS r socially immature may b enviornmental result of how theyre treated coz of immature physiclao appearance nature vs nurture
cog explana gender 1 kohlberg theory KEEP REPEATING
- Suggests childrens understanding of gender actively develops directly seeking out learning experiebces & inetellectually organising concepts not passively responding 2 stimuli (behaviourism) or obsv (social learning theory)
- Kohlbergs theory MSLE= gender develops in series of stages through processes of maturation(growing up/brain dvelop) socialisation e.g learning from peers/culture & lessening ego centrism (starting to see from other ppls perspectives).
- labelling stability consistency
- STAGE 1= gender labelling stage 2-3 yr olds r aware of own gender as boy/girl & can identify other ppls gender but not aware of permanece (permanent state)
- STAGE 2= gender stability 4-5 yr olds r aware of own gender as fixed over time. confused by non normative appearances/roles in others
- STAGE 3= gender consistency= around 5 years old. recognise everyones gender is consistent over time despite changes in or unusual hair /clothes
- after consistency= children actively seek for/ look to identify w & imitate same gendered indviduals. developing understanding of gender w this exp
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nterviwe to assess stage of gender development of 23 boys & 32 girls (2-5 yrs old) children watched film w male & female model performing same activity (playing instrument/drinking juice) on either side of screen. rsrchrs recorded how long each child focused on each model. found= childrens stage of gdner develooment was assosciated w age & children in gender consytancy stage spent longer looking at same sex model esp boys. suggests that children do have observable stages 2 gender development as predicted by Kohlberg & childen do look 2 same sex models for gender self socialisation CA== Biological theories suggest that gendered behaviour is due to innate processes resulting in instinctual behaviour that isn’t dependant on schemas. This better fits the observation that the vast majority of world cultures have similar expectations of male (competitive) and female (caring) behaviour. If schemas were the full
explanation we would expect to see greater variability in gendered behaviour.
cog expl gender 2 gender schema theory keep repeating
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- gender schema theory= mental representatioms of wt sex is & what r stereotypically male & female bhvrs so informs our own behaviours & whats expected from others.
- Children reach gender identity around 2-3 years= stage suggetsed by gender schema theory (GST) taht children start 2 actively develop their gender schemas looking 2 enviornment for examples of gendered bhvrs. using tnis 2 inform own actions. GST suggests this happens earlier thsn the 5 years suggested by Kohlberg
- ingroups are the gender that child belongs 2 & children focus more on & develop stronger understanding of stereotyped behaviour for thei gender before deeper understanding of outgroup= opposite sex gender. this is reinforced by adult behaviour such as giving gendered toys, praising gendered behaviour & lang e.g “you dont want tht toy its boys”/ stop acting like a little girl
2 years – Child is able to correctly identify their gender, and then aims to seek out gender appropriate behaviour
4-6 years – Child forms an ingroup schema, where they are focus on their own gender-appropriate activities e.g truck = boys, doll = girls, this is seen as positive behaviours, they are aware of an outgroup, but do not pay attention to it as these are seen as negative behaviours.
6 years – ingroup schema fully develops, rigid, schema is more detailed and elaborate regarding gender appropriate behaviour
8-10 years – Outgroup schema also develops. Both become more elaborate
Teenage years – Gender schema roles are now more flexible, allowing for the possibility of androgyny.
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baurer tested gender schema in children as young as 25months. children observed psychologist completing stereotypical sequences e.g changinh nappy F anf shaving teddy bear F or treasure hunt N. tested 2 see if children would copy behaviour both immediately & after 24hrs. found that girls showed no diff in recall of gender consistent/ inconsis behaviour. & boys recalled behaviour which r consistent w own gender more than that whch is inconsistent CA…. however resrarcher baurer was female so girls may have identified more w same sex resulting in them being indiscrimatie of activity recall thus better to use both male & female researchers theory doesnt eplain y gender schemas develop & take the form that they do. it is descriptive rather than explanatory
Biological theories suggest that gendered behaviour is due to innate processes resulting in instinctual behaviour that isn’t dependant on schemas. This better fits the observation that the vast majority of world cultures have similar expectations of male (competitive) and female (caring) behaviour. If schemas were the full
explanation we would expect to see greater variability in gendered behaviour. study done om verveert monkeys found that male monkeys more likely 2 play w male toys & females w female e.g dolls so suggests preference for gendered objects is instinctual w evolutionary basis
adults gave babies toys that matched w clothing gender (alr seen study) but can state this is in the *process of developing schema coz shows what is & isnt appropriate 2 play w based off of gender
SEP POITN. SLT criticies theory for over emphasising cog factors. e.g argue that ignore social factors such as reinforcement of behaviours seen from parents peers teachers & media. suggests theory income
psych explanatiob
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- freud stated tht gender identity develops in phallic stages in psychosexual stages
- boys have oedipus complex= sexual feelings towards mother however have castration anxiety coz afraid fathers will castrate them coz of their feelings towards mother. thus child wld identify w father & internalise traits and chracteristics to prevent. leads to development of super ego which is how boys develop gender identity
- girls= electra complex sexual feelings towards father girls dont exp castration anxiety as feel that they have alr been castrated. rather than having penis envy they have desire to have a penis. penis envy evolves into a desire 2 have baby & child identifies w mother internalising traits & morals. but coz girls dont exp castration anx= less pressure for them 2 identify w same sex paerent so develop weaker supergo & freud stated weaker morals
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+ little hans study supports case study little hans fear of horses which freud interpreted as displaced fear of castration anxiety coz of oedipus conflict which led 2 phobia….CA= lacks temporal validity coz today there can b same sex parents that dont match gender of child & theyre still able 2 develop typical gender identity. Alpha bias= exaggerated diff between males/ females. and lacks falsifability & case study so idiographic
conducted a meta-analysis of 67 studies on father absent families. Finding boys over 6 years old without father figures actually showed slightly more stereotypically masculine behaviours than boys with fathers. Green (1978) found that when compared to boys raised in heterosexual households there was no significant difference in the gender development of boys raised in lesbian households. Freud’s theory suggests the presence of a male “father figure” is needed for typical gender identity, this is not supported by
this research, undermining the main part of his theory of gender.
some face validity e.g being called “daddys girl” or mummys boy
Freuds theory has been used to stigmatised/ criticise same gender and single parent families by questioning the ability of families without male father figures in raising children. These finding show the criticism of these families to be
incorrect and highlight the issue of social sensitivity in psychological research.
slt on gender roles
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- slt= behavioural& cog theory tht bhvr including gendered bhvr is developed from exp thro socialisation children learn culturally appropriate gender bhvr by obsv bhvr & how theyre rewarded
- children see others praised/rewarded for sex-approp bhvr (vicarious reinforcement) or rewarded directly.
- differential reinforcement= when children praised for diff bhvr e.g boys praised for being comp whilst girls praised for being quiet & playing w doll
- role models r same sex older siblings/parents (live models) & tv characters (symbolic models) who r more llikely 2 be identified w & imitated if similar e.g age
- bhvr shown via mediational processes attention retention reproduction & motivation
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+ rust inv if sex of older sibling is assosc w gender role development of 3 yr old children. gender role bhvr was measured in over 2000 children w SINGLE SIBLING (older bro/sis) compared 2 3000 children w no older siblings . have older bro found 2 assosc more masc bhvr in BOYS & having older sister = more feminine bhvr in BOYS. SUPPORTS SLT OF GENDER DEVELOPMET as older siblings= accesiible as role model suggests even if sibling opp sex there will still b some imitation of gendered bhvr
+ Understanding slt processes can be used to change harmful gender role narratives e.g making female mathematicians & scientists more vsible on tv & men chilcare can bring changes. ALSO GENDER ROLES HAVE CHANGED WAY DISPLAYED OVERTIME E.G DISNEY MOVIES MORE PRINCESSES WHO HUNT SO THESE CHANGES SUPPORT THAT GENDER IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED & transmitted via socialisation
- slt difficult in explaining Atypical gender developm & gender dysphoria. SLT wld suggest ppl who exp & obs negative social reactions 2 non typical gendeer bhvr wld conform
so many cultures around world show similar gender normative roles. competitive & aggre r masculine & caring typically feminine. may be better explained by evoltuionary arguments e.g males had 2 hunt for mates & females raise kids
the influence of culture & media on gender roles
- gender normative stereotypes w a culture r reinforced by peers teachers & parents & cultural variation in gendered behaviour between cultures suggests SLT processes
- if normative gender roles r displayed as attractive & rewarding (fame) in media. making identification more likely media personalities act as symbolic models & media tends to reinforce culturally stereotypical gender roles of the culture that created it e.g princess saved by prince who uses aggression to find her
11 countries studied on sex role stereotyping in TV rsrched. diverse countries e.g hong long britain Mexico.. FOUND CONSISTENT PATTERNS across countries women presented as dependent e.g spouse/parent whilsy men in professional roles outdoors & authority on the product. suggests the stereotypical display of gender roles is common across countries & may B LEADING 2 REINFORCEMENT OF THESE GENDER ROLES VIA SLT CA= study reviewed 64 studies finding strong gender stereotyping in ads but this has reduced over time. also data analysis showed reduction in gender stereotyping was result of changes in wider society. suggests ADVS MIRRORS SCOIETY BUT DOESNT MOULD SOCIETY VIA SLT
PRO = psych rsrch has been influential on policy makers european parliament issued resolution on gender stereotyping in media. recognising that advertisings purpose was 2 influence & gender stereotypes reinforced narrow normative gender roles & life choices. the resoultion requested n. of countries reduce stereotyipical portrayrlas of male & females on TV= PRO COZ RSRCH INTO INFL MEDIA& CULTURE SHOWING PROGRESSION IN EQUALITY
Atypical gender development biological & social explanations for gender dysphoria.
- gender dysphoria= mismatch between sex assigned at birth based on external/ anatomical biological sexual characteristics & psychological gender identity
- ppl w gender dysphoria= exp psychological distress e.g trspped in wrong body
- gender dysphoria= mental disorder so not all gender diverse ppl have gender dysphoria
- biological expl 4 gender dysph= mismatch sex x gender due 2 biological factors e.g brain structure genes & hormones
- brain structure= brain sex theory- suggests brain regions e.g hypothalamus in trans ppl being closer to size of biological female/male individuals. maybe raises possibility that leads to feminisation/masc of those areas in brain
- genetic expl= suggests ppl w gender dysphoria have variations 2 genes that r resposible for androgen reception e.g changes effect testosterone onbrain & leads 2 feminisation.
- hormonal explanations= suggests unusul levels androgens hormone (testosterone) exposure in womb influences development of foetus. Cld be both over exposure in biologically female foeutus & under exposure in biologically male foetuses resulting in a-typica; gender development
- SOCIAL EXPL FOR GENDER DYSPH= mismatch gender x sex due 2 environmental- psychological factors szuch as peers,family media & culture
- behavioruists say= as operant conditioning & direct reinforcement & punishment of gender normative bhvr leads 2 sex type bhvr if someone is rewarded for cross gendered bhvr theyll develop gender dysphoria
- slt= agree but add that can b learned via vicarious reinforcement seeing some1 else praised/ if have more role models 2 identify w
- cog theory= dual pathway theory suggests in addition 2 normal development of sex typed gender schema ppl ( attitudinal pathway model?) can develop non sex typed schema from exp & developing interests (personal pathway). e.g girls enjoying DIY w dad. this is if this second schema can override original schema & this can lead 2 androgyny / gender dysphroia
- psychodynamic= child didnt successufly resolve oedpis complex & didnt achieve 2 identify w same sex parent so not internalising their gender identity. due 2 absence / maladatpive rsp w opp sex parent
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+ for biol. study on post mortem analysis of anterior hypothalamus on 42 subjects. found volume of neurones in M & F trans more similar 2 female controls than to control males. suggests area of anterior hypothalamus is implicated in gender identity & gender dysphoria is result of sexual differentiation in brain CA=…… cant properlt establish cause x effect rsp
PSYCH+ 25 girls (3-12 yrs) assed as having gender dysphoria. when followed up (15-36) only 12% still had gender dysphoria. wallien found only 27% group of 55 g+boys were gender dysphric 10 years after initial diagnosis. SUGGESGS gender idenity in children is not innate / fixed as wold be suggested by biological arguments but gender idenity formation can b infleunced by social psych factors exp in childhood perhaps slt & behavioural factors coz can explain shifts
PSYCH+ mothes of 115 M to F children assessing levels of sep anxiety. Finding those children who met full criteria 4 gender identity disorder r signif more likley 2 have exp s anxiety disorder SUGGESTING development A-typical gender identity is associated w early interactional rsp between mothers & sons …
- LIMITATION= Reductionist approach may b too simplistic to be valid. better explanation= interactionalist approach more accurate. gender identity cld b multifactorial process w biolo factors creating pre disposition towards A-typical gender development in an early childhood critical period that is then expressed in adukthood dependent on social factors e.g schema development & slt process
