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First Year First Semester > Psychology Chapters 7&9 > Flashcards

Psychology Chapters 7&9 Flashcards

1
Q

Learning

A

The acquisition, from experience, of new knowledge, skills, or responses that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner

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2
Q

Habituation

A

A general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding

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3
Q

Sensitization

A

A simple form of learning that occurs when presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus

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4
Q

Classical conditioning

A

A type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response

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5
Q

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

A

Something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism

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6
Q

Unconditioned response (UR)

A

A reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus

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7
Q

Acquisition

A

The phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together

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8
Q

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

A previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in an organism after being paired with a US

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9
Q

Conditioned response (CR)

A

A reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus

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10
Q

Second-order conditioning

A

A type of learning where a CS is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the US in an earlier procedure

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11
Q

Extinction

A

The gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US

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12
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

The tendency of a learned behaviour to recover from extinction after a rest period

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13
Q

Generalization

A

The CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the CS used during acquisition

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14
Q

Discrimination

A

The capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli

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15
Q

Biological preparedness

A

A propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others

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16
Q

Operant conditioning

A

A type of learning in which the consequences of an organism’s behaviour determine whether it will repeat that behaviour in the future

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17
Q

Law of effect

A

The principle that behaviours that are followed by a “satisfying state of affairs” tend to be repeated, and those that produce an “unpleasant state of affairs” are less likely to be repeated

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18
Q

Operant behaviour

A

Behaviour that an organism performs that has some impact on the environment

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19
Q

Reinforcer

A

Any stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of the behaviour that led to it

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20
Q

Punisher

A

Any stimulus or event that decreases the likelihood of the behaviour that led to it

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21
Q

Fixed-interval schedule (FI)

A

An operant conditioning principle whereby reinforcers are presented at fixed time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made.

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22
Q

Variable-interval schedule (VI)

A

An operant conditioning principle whereby behaviour is reinforced on the basis of an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement

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23
Q

Fixed-ratio schedule (FR)

A

An operant conditioning principle whereby reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made

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24
Q

Variable-ratio schedule (VR)

A

An operant conditioning principle whereby the delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses

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25
Q

Intermittent reinforcement

A

An operant conditioning principle whereby only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement

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26
Q

Intermittent reinforcement effect

A

The fact that operant behaviours that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement

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27
Q

Shaping

A

Learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behaviour

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28
Q

Latent learning

A

A process in which something is learned, but it is not manifested as a behavioural change until sometime in the future

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29
Q

Cognitive map

A

A mental representation of the physical features of the environment

30
Q

Observational learning

A

A condition in which an organism learns by watching the actions of others

31
Q

Diffusion chain

A

A process in which individuals initially learn a behaviour by observing another individual perform that behaviour, and then become models from which other individuals learn the behaviour

32
Q

Implicit learning

A

Learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition

33
Q

Language

A

A system for communicating with others using signals that are combined according to rules of grammar and that convey meaning

34
Q

Grammar

A

A set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages

35
Q

Phoneme

A

The smallest unit of sound that is recognizable as speech rather than as random noise

36
Q

Phonological rules

A

A set of rules that indicate how phonemes can be combined to produce speech sounds

37
Q

Morphemes

A

The smallest meaningful units of language

38
Q

Morphological rules

A

A set of rules that indicate how morphemes can be combined to form words

39
Q

Syntactical rules

A

A set of rules that indicate how words can be combined to form phrases and sentences

40
Q

Deep structure

A

The meaning of a sentence

41
Q

Surface structure

A

How a sentence is worded

42
Q

Fast mapping

A

The process whereby children can map a word onto an underlying concept after only a single exposure

43
Q

Telegraphic speech

A

Speech that is devoid of function morphemes and consists mostly of content words

44
Q

Nativist theory

A

The view that language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity

45
Q

Language acquisition device (LAD)

A

A collection of processes that facilitate language of learning

46
Q

Genetic dysphasia

A

A syndrome characterized by an inability to learn the grammatical structure of a language despite having otherwise normal intelligence

47
Q

Aphasia

A

Difficulty in producing or comprehending language

48
Q

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

A

The proposal that language shapes the nature of thought

49
Q

Concept

A

A mental representation that groups or categorizes shared features of related objects, events, or other stimuli

50
Q

Family resemblance theory

A

The concept that members of a category have features that appear to be characteristic of category members but may not be possessed by every member

51
Q

Prototype

A

The “best” or “most typical” member of a category

52
Q

Exemplar theory

A

A theory of categorization that argues that we make category judgements by comparing a new instance with stored memories of other instances of the category

53
Q

Category-specific deficit

A

A neurological syndrome that is characterized by an inability to recognize objects that belong to a particular category, although the ability to recognize objects outside the category is undisturbed

54
Q

Rational choice theory

A

The classical view that we make decisions by determining how likely something is to happen, judging the value of the outcome, and then multiplying the two

55
Q

Availability bias

A

The concept that items that are more readily available in memory are judged as having occurred more frequently

56
Q

Heuristic

A

A fast and efficient strategy that may facilitate decision making but does not guarantee that a solution will be reached

57
Q

Algorithm

A

A well-defined sequence of procedures or rules that guarantees a solution to a problem

58
Q

Conjunction fallacy

A

When people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event

59
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

A mental shortcut that involves making a probability judgement by comparing an object or event with a prototype of the object or event

60
Q

Framing effects

A

A bias whereby people give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is phrased (or framed)

61
Q

Sunk-cost fallacy

A

A framing effect in which people make decisions about a current situation on the basis of what they have previously invested in the situation

62
Q

Optimism bias

A

A bias whereby people believe that, compared with other people, they are more likely to experience positive events and less likely to experience negative events in the future

63
Q

Prospect theory

A

The theory that people choose to take on risk when evaluating potential losses and avoid risks when evaluating potential gain

64
Q

Means-ends analysis

A

A process of searching for the means or steps to reduce differences between the current situation and the desired goal

65
Q

Analogical problem solving

A

The process of solving a problem by finding a similar problem with a known solution and applying that solution to the current problem

66
Q

Functional fixedness

A

The tendency to perceive the functions of objects as unchanging

67
Q

Reasoning

A

A mental activity that consists of organizing information or beliefs into a series of steps in order to reach conclusions

68
Q

Practical reasoning

A

The process of figuring out what to do or reasoning directed towards action

69
Q

Theoretical reasoning (or discursive reasoning)

A

Reasoning directed towards arriving at a belief

70
Q

Belief bias

A

The idea that people’s judgements about whether to accept conclusions depend more on how believable the conclusions are than on whether the arguments are logically valid

71
Q

Syllogistic reasoning

A

Determining whether a conclusion follows from two statements that are assumed to be true

First Year First Semester (14 decks)

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