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First Year First Semester > Biology Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Biology Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Anatomy

A

Studies the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another

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2
Q

Physiology

A

Concerns the function of the body; how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities

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3
Q

Gross (macroscopic) anatomy

A

The study of large body structures visible to the naked eye

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4
Q

Regional anatomy

A

Anatomy of a particular region is studied at the same time

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5
Q

Systemic anatomy

A

Anatomy of a particular system is studied at the same time

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6
Q

Surface anatomy

A

The study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface

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7
Q

Microscopic anatomy

A

Studies structures too small to be seen with the naked eye

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8
Q

Cytology

A

Studies the cells of the body

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9
Q

Histology

A

The study of tissues

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10
Q

Renal physiology

A

Kidney function and urine production system

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11
Q

Neurophysiology

A

Explains the workings of the nervous system

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12
Q

Cardiovascular physiology

A

Examines the operation of the heart and blood vessels

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13
Q

Principle of complementarity of structure and function

A

What a structure can do depends on its specific form. Function always reflects structure

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14
Q

Chemical level

A

Atoms combine to form molecules

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15
Q

Cellular levels

A

Molecules combine to form cellular organelles; The smallest living organisms are cells. In multi cellular organisms calls have unique functions

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16
Q

Tissue level

A

Tissues are groups of similar cells that have a common function

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17
Q

Organ level

A

Organs are discrete structures composed of at least two tissues; very specialized functions

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18
Q

Organ system level

A

Organs that work together to accomplish a purpose in an organism

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19
Q

Organismal level

A

The sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive

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20
Q

Integumentary system

A

The very outer layer of the body providing a protective barrier for internal organs. (Synthesizes vitamin D and has pressure/pain receptors and oil/sweat glands)

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21
Q

Skeletal system

A

The framework of the body supporting tissues and protecting organs. Blood cells formed with bones; bones store minerals

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22
Q

Muscular system

A

Contracting muscles allows for movement; maintains body posture and produces heat

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23
Q

Lymphatic system

A

Collects fluid outside of the circulatory system in order to return it to the blood stream. Houses white blood cells involved in the body’s defensive immune system

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24
Q

Respiratory system

A

Oxygenates blood and removes carbon dioxide

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25
Q

Digestive system

A

Breaks down food in order to absorb the nutrients for body function (waste eliminated as feces)

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26
Q

Nervous system

A

Responds to internal and external stimuli through fast acting response

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27
Q

Endocrine system

A

Regulates processes including growth, reproduction, and metabolism through glands that secrete hormones

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28
Q

Cardiovascular system

A

System composed of the heart and blood vessels pumping blood that transports oxygen, nutrients, carbon dioxide, wastes, ect.

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29
Q

Urinary system

A

Eliminates waste from the body and regulates water, electrolytes, and the balance of acid and base in the body

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30
Q

Reproductive system

A

Functions for the production of offspring; sexual reproduction results in male sperm fertilizing the female egg resulting in an embryo that the female body develops and births as a human newborn

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31
Q

Epidermis

A

Composed of epithelial cells, it is the outermost layer of the body for protection of the internal layers

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32
Q

Dermis

A

Tough layer of connective tissue underneath the epidermis for nutrient diffusion and connection

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33
Q

Stratum Basale (Basal Layer)

A

Deepest epidermal layer involved in the continual renewal of cells

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34
Q

Stratum Spinosum (Prickly layer)

A

Several layers thic that serve to resist tension in the cell

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35
Q

Stratum Granulosum (Granular layer)

A

Consists of one to five cell layers in which keratinization occurs; forms keratin and reduces water loss

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36
Q

Subcutaneous tissue

A

Tissue that connects the skin to underlying structures

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37
Q

Mucosa

A

Innermost layer of the digestive system

  • Secretes mucus, enzymes, and hormones
  • Absorbs the end products of digestion
  • Protects against disease
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38
Q

Submucosa

A

Just external to the mucosa; areolar connective tissue and rich supply of blood vessels
- Enables the stomach to regain its normal shape (after storing a large meal)

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39
Q

Muscularis Externa

A

Consists of smooth muscle cells; responsible for segmentation and peristalsis, controls food passage. Made up of 2 layers:

  • Inner circular layer
  • Outer longitudal layer
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40
Q

Serosa

A

Outermost layer of intraperitoneal organs formed of connective tissue for structural support and connection

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41
Q

Mucous

A

Found on the epithelial cells facing the lumen and protects digestive organs from enzymes

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42
Q

Superior

A

Higher

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43
Q

Inferior

A

Lower

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44
Q

Anterior

A

Front

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45
Q

Posterior

A

Back

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46
Q

Medial

A

Toward the middle

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47
Q

Lateral

A

Away from the middle

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48
Q

Proximal

A

Closer

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49
Q

Distal

A

farther

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50
Q

Superficial

A

On the surface

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51
Q

Deep

A

Under the surface

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52
Q

Dorsal

A

Above (usually in an animal context)

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53
Q

Ventral

A

Below (usually in an animal context)

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54
Q

Parietal

A

Outer layer

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55
Q

Visceral

A

Inner layer

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56
Q

Abdominal

A

Stomach area

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57
Q

Pelvic

A

Underbelly

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58
Q

Coxal

A

Hip

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59
Q

Pubic

A

Genital

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60
Q

Otic

A

Ear

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61
Q

Frontal

A

Forehead

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62
Q

Orbital

A

Eye

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63
Q

Nasal

A

Nose

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64
Q

Cervical

A

Neck

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65
Q

Thoracic

A

Chest

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66
Q

Lumbar

A

Lower back

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67
Q

Sacral

A

Lower back in between the two hips

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68
Q

Axillary

A

Side of chest

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69
Q

Popliteal

A

Back of knee

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70
Q

Femoral

A

Thigh

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71
Q

Plantar

A

Bottom of foot

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72
Q

Sagittal plane

A

Vertical plane that divides the body into right/left

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73
Q

Midsagittal (median) plane

A

Sagittal plane that lies directly in the middle of the body

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74
Q

Frontal (coronal) plane

A

Vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts

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75
Q

Transverse (cross) plane

A

Horizontal plane dividing the body into superior and inferior parts

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76
Q

Oblique plane

A

Cuts made diagonally between horizontal and vertical planes

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77
Q

Thoracic cavity

A

Houses the heart and lungs; surrounded by ribs and muscles

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78
Q

Abdominopelvic cavity

A

Includes abdominal and pelvic cavities

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79
Q

Cranial cavity

A

Houses the brain

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80
Q

Pleural cavity

A

Houses one lung each

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81
Q

Pericardial cavity

A

Houses just the heart

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82
Q

Mediastinum

A

Cavity around the pericardial cavity, and the remaining thoracic organs (esophagus, trachea, and others)

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83
Q

Abdominopelvic cavity

A

Has two parts; The abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity

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84
Q

Abdominal cavity

A

Contains the stomach

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85
Q

Dorsal body cavity

A

Protects the fragile nervous system organs and is made up of the cranial cavity and the spinal (vertebral) cavity

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86
Q

Spinal (vertebral) cavity

A

Runs within the bony vertebral column and encloses the delicate spinal cord.

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87
Q

Ventral body cavity

A

More anterior and larger of the closed body cavities
Major subdivisions: Thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity
Houses internal organs (viscera)

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88
Q

Viscera

A

Organs in the body cavity

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89
Q

Pelvic cavity

A

Lies in the pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, some reproductive organs, and the rectum

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90
Q

Serosa (serous membrane)

A

Thin, double-layered membrane covering the walls of the ventral body cavity and outer surfaces of the organs

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91
Q

Perietal serosa

A

The part of the membrane lining the cavity walls

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92
Q

Visceral serosa

A

Membrane that folds in on itself covering the organs in the cavity

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93
Q

Serous fluid

A

Thin layer of lubricating fluid secreted by the serosal membranes
Allows organs to slide without friction across the cavity walls as they carry out their routine functions

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94
Q

Right upper quadrant (RUQ)

A

Right upper quadrant of the abdominopelvic cavity from the subject’s point of view (top left when viewed by observer)

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95
Q

Right lower quadrant (RLQ)

A

Right lower quadrant of the abdominopelvic cavity from the subject’s point of view (bottom left when viewed by observer)

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96
Q

Left upper quadrant (LUQ)

A

Left upper quadrant of the abdominopelvic cavity from the subject’s point of view (top right when viewed by observer)

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97
Q

Left lower quadrant (LLQ)

A

Left lower quadrant of the abdominopelvic cavity from the subject’s point of view (bottom right when viewed by observer)

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98
Q

Umbilical region

A

Centermost region deep to and surrounding the umbilicus (navel)

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99
Q

Epistatic region

A

Located superior to the umbilical region (upper belly)

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100
Q

Pubic (hypogastric) region

A

Located inferior to the umbillical region (lower belly)

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101
Q

Right and left inguinal (iliac) regions

A

Located lateral to the hypogastric region (superior part of the hip bone)

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102
Q

Right and left lateral (lumbar) regions

A

Lie lateral to the umbilical region (loin)

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103
Q

Right and left hypochondriac regions

A

Lie lateral to the epigastric region and deep to the rips (cartilage)

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104
Q

Oral cavity

A

The mouth: contains teeth and tongue

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105
Q

Digestive cavity

A

Continuous with oral cavity

Opens to the body exterior at the anus

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106
Q

Nasal cavity

A

Located within and posterior to the nose

Part of the respiratory system passageways

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107
Q

Orbital cavities

A

Cavities in the skull that house the eyes and present them in an anterior position

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108
Q

Middle ear cavities

A

Lie just medial to the eardrums

Contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to the hearing receptors in the inner ears

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109
Q

Synovial cavities

A

Joint cavities
Enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround freely movable joints of the body (elbow and knee)
Membranes lining these cavities secrete lubricating fluid to reduce friction

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110
Q

Matter

A

Anything that occupies space and mass

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111
Q

Energy

A

The capacity to do work

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112
Q

Kinetic energy

A

Energy in action

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113
Q

Potential energy

A

Stored energy that is inactive but has potential to do work

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114
Q

Chemical energy

A

Form of energy stored in the bonds of chemical substances

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115
Q

Electrical energy

A

Results from the movement of charged particles

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116
Q

Mechanical energy

A

Energy directly involved in moving matter

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117
Q

Radiant energy (electromagnetic radiation)

A

Energy that travels in waves

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118
Q

Elements

A

Unique substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods

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119
Q

Periodic table

A

List of known elements and helps to explain the properties of each element

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120
Q

Atoms

A

Building blocks of elements

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121
Q

Atomic symbol

A

One or two letter chemical shorthand for an element

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122
Q

Nucleus

A

Contains protons and neutrons tightly bound together

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123
Q

Protons (p+)

A

Subatomic particles that bear a positive electrical charge

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124
Q

Neutrons (n0)

A

Neutral subatomic particle

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125
Q

1 atomic mass unit (amu)

A

The mass of protons/neutrons

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126
Q

Electrons (e-)

A

Subatomic particles that bear a negative charge equal to the positive charge of the proton
1/2000 the mass of a proton

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127
Q

Planetary model of the atom

A

Simplified model of atomic structure (electrons moving around nucleus in fixed, circular orbits)

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128
Q

Orbitals

A

Regions around the nucleus in which a given electron or electron pair is likely to be found most of the time

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129
Q

Orbital model

A

Uses orbitals to model the atom (more useful for predicting chemical behaviour of atoms)

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130
Q

Atomic number

A

Equal to the number of protons in its nucleus

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131
Q

Mass number

A

Sum of the masses in an atom’s protons and neutrons

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132
Q

Isotopes

A

Structural variations of elements - Differ in the number of neutrons

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133
Q

Atomic weight

A

An average of the weights of all the isotopes of an element taking into account their relative abundance in nature

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134
Q

Radioisotopes

A

Heavier isotopes of elements that are unstable so their atoms may decompose spontaneously into more stable forms; this process of atomic decay is radioactivity

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135
Q

Compound

A

When two or more different kinds of atoms bind

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136
Q

Molecule

A

A combination of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds

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137
Q

Mixtures

A

Substances composed of two or more components physically intermixed (solutions, colloids, and suspensions)

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138
Q

Solutions

A

Homogeneous mixtures of components that may be gases, liquids, or solids

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139
Q

Molarity

A

Moles per liter (M)

Concentration measurement

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140
Q

Percent

A

Parts per 100 parts

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141
Q

Mole

A

The atomic or molecular weight of any molecule in grams

142
Q

Molecular weight

A

Sum of the atomic weights in a molecule

143
Q

Avogadro’s number

A

One mole of any substance always contains 6.02 x 10^23 solute particles

144
Q

Colloids

A

Emulsions; heterogeneous mixtures (composition is dissimilar in different areas of the mixture

145
Q

Sol-gel transformations

A

To change reversibly from a fluid (sol) state to a more solid (gel) state. Some colloids do this (gelatin)

146
Q

Suspensions

A

Heterogeneous mixtures with large, often visible solutes that tend to settles out

147
Q

Chemical bonds

A

An energy relationship between the electrons of the reacting atoms (made or broken in less than a trillionth of a second)

148
Q

Electron shell

A

Regions of space that consecutively surround the atomic nucleus

149
Q

Energy level

A

Same as electron shells; Different electron shells represent different energy levels (electrons are particles with a certain amount of potential energy)

150
Q

Valence shell

A

An atom’s outermost energy level or that portion of it containing the electrons that are chemically reactive

151
Q

Octet rule

A

Rule of eights
Except for shell 1, which is full when it has 2 electrons, atoms tend to interact in such a way they end up having 8 electrons in their valence shell

152
Q

Ions

A

When electrons are transferred from one atom to another and the precise balance of + and - charges is lost resulting in charged particles

153
Q

Ionic bond

A

A chemical bond between atoms formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to the other

154
Q

Anion

A

An atom with a net negative charge

155
Q

Cation

A

An atom with a net positive charge

156
Q

Crystals

A

Large arrays of cations and anions held together by ionic bonds

157
Q

Covalent bond

A

Molecules in which electrons are shared where the shared electrons occupy a single orbital common to both atoms

158
Q

Nonpolar molecules

A

Molecules that are covalently bonded and electrically balanced

159
Q

Polar molecules

A

Molecules that have an unequal electron pair sharing resulting in poles of opposite charges

160
Q

Electronegativity

A

Atoms with 6 or 7 valence shell electrons that are electron-hungry and attract electrons very strongly

161
Q

Electropositive

A

Electron-attracting ability of an atom is so low that they usually lose their valence shell electrons to other atoms

162
Q

Dipole

A

A molecule with two poles of charge (polar molecule)

163
Q

Hydrogen bonds

A

Weak bonds - more like attractions
When a hydrogen atom (covalently bonded to an electronegative atom eg nitrogen/oxygen) is attracted to another electron-hungry atom so that a ‘bridge’ forms between them

164
Q

Chemical reaction

A

When chemical bonds are formed, rearranged, or broken

165
Q

Reactants

A

The number and kinds of interacting substances

166
Q

Products

A

The chemical composition of the result of the reaction

167
Q

Molecular formula

A

The way molecules are represented by its atomic symbol and number of atoms making up the molecule

168
Q

Synthesis (Combination reaction)

A

When atoms or molecules combine to form a larger, more complex molecule

169
Q

Decomposition reaction

A

When a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or its constituent atoms

170
Q

Catabolic

A

Degradative processes in body cells

171
Q

Exchange reactions (displacement)

A

Involve both synthesis and decomposition

Bonds are both made and broken; parts of the reactant molecules change partners producing different product molecules

172
Q

Oxidation-reduction reactions (redox)

A

Decomposition reactions where food fuels are broken down for energy (electrons are exchanged between reactants)

173
Q

Oxidized

A

The electron donor in an oxidation reduction reaction is oxidized

174
Q

Reduced

A

The reactant taking up the transferred electrons is reduced

175
Q

Exergonic reactions

A

Reactions that release energy

176
Q

Endergonic reactions

A

Reactions that contain more potential energy in their chemical bonds than did the reactants

177
Q

Chemical equilibrium

A

For each molecule of product (AB) formed, one product molecule breaks down, releasing the reactants A and B

178
Q

Catalysts

A

Substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without themselves becoming chemically changed or part of the product

179
Q

Universal solvent

A

water

180
Q

Biochemistry

A

The study of chemical composition and reactions of living matter

181
Q

Organic compounds

A

Compounds containing carbon and are made by living things (covalently bonded often large)

182
Q

Inorganic compounds

A

Compounds that lack carbon

183
Q

Hydration layers

A

Layers of water molecules around large charged molecules such as proteins sheilding them from the effects of other charged substances

184
Q

Salt

A

An ionic compound containing cations other than H+ and anions other than the hydroxyl ion (OH-)

185
Q

Electrolytes

A

Substances that conduct an electrical current in solution

186
Q

Acids

A

Substances that releases hydrogen ions (H+) in detectable amounts
Also sour and reactive

187
Q

Proton donors

A

When dissolved in water acids release hydrogen ions (protons) and anions
A hydrogen ion is just a hydrogen nucleus which is a single proton

188
Q

Bases

A

Substances that take up hydrogen ions (H+) in detectable amounts
Also bitter and slippery

189
Q

(OH-)

A

Hydroxyl ions

190
Q

(H+)

A

Hydrogen ions

191
Q

(HCO3-)

A

Bicarbonate ion

192
Q

(NH3)

A

Ammonia

193
Q

pH units

A

Concentration of acidity measurement

194
Q

Buffers

A

Resist abrupt and large swings in the pH of body fluids by releasing hydrogen ions (acting as acids) when the pH begins to rise and by binding hydrogen ions (acting as bases) when the pH drops

195
Q

Strong acids

A

Acids that dissociate completely and irreversibly

196
Q

Weak acids

A

Acids do not dissociate completely

197
Q

Strong bases

A

Bases that dissociate easily in water and quickly tie up (H+)

198
Q

Weak bases

A

Bases that ionize incompletely and reversibly accepeting relatively few protons

199
Q

Bicarbonate buffer system

A

In this buffer system the weak acid (carbonic acid (H2CO3) dissociates reversibly, releasing its corresponding weak base, bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) and protons (H+)

200
Q

Electroneutral

A

Never loses or gains electrons (carbon)

201
Q

Macromolecules

A

Large complex molecules containing thousands of atoms

202
Q

Polymers

A

Chainlike molecules made of many smaller, identical or similar subunits

203
Q

Monomers

A

Small subunits of polymers

204
Q

Dehydration synthesis

A

Monomers are joined by removal of OH from one monomer and removal of H from the other at the site of bond formation resulting in the release of a water molecule as a covalent bond forms

205
Q

Hydrolysis

A

A water molecule is added to each bond that is broken thereby releasing its building blocks
Monomers are released by the addition of a water molecule, adding OH to one monomer and H to the other

206
Q

Carbohydrates

A

A group of molecules that includes sugars and starches (represent 1-2% of cell mass)
Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (hydrogen atoms generally occur in the same 2:1 ratio of water; hydrated carbon)

207
Q

Monosaccharides

A

‘Simple sugars’

Single-chain or single-ring structures containing from three to seven carbon atoms

208
Q

Isomers

A

Have the same molecular formula but atoms are arranged differently giving different chemical properties

209
Q

Polysaccharides

A

Polymers of simple sugars linked together by dehydration synthesis

210
Q

Lipids

A

Insoluble in water but dissolve readily in other lipids and other organic solvents

211
Q

Triglycerides

A

Commonly known as fats or oils
Large molecules (often consisting of hundreds of atoms) providing the body’s most efficient and compact form of stored energy; when oxidized they yield large amounts of energy
Made up of fatty acids and glycerol in a 3:1 ratio

212
Q

Fatty acids

A

Linear chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms (hydrocarbon chains) with an organic acid group (COOH) at one end

213
Q

Glycerol

A

A modified simple sugar (a sugar alcohol)

214
Q

Saturated fats

A

Fatty acid chains with only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms

215
Q

Unsaturated fats (monounsaturated/polyunsaturated)

A

Fatty acids that contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms

216
Q

Trans fats

A

Oils that have been solidified by addition of H atoms at sites of carbon double bonds (margarine)

217
Q

Phospholipids

A

Modified triglycerides; they have two, rather than three, fatty acid chains. The third chain is replaced by a phosphate group (PO4) with an attached nitrogen0contianing group

218
Q

Hydrophobic

A

Water fearing

Hydrophobic molecules only interact with other nonpolar molecules

219
Q

Hydrophilic

A

Water loving

220
Q

Steroids

A

Flat molecules made of four interlocking hydrocarbon rings

Fat soluble and contain little oxygen

221
Q

Cholesterol

A

Basis for all steroids formed in the body. Found in cell membranes and is the raw material for synthesis of vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile salts

222
Q

Protein

A

Basic structural material of the body

223
Q

Amino acids

A

The building blocks of proteins

224
Q

Peptide bond

A

Bond between proteins joined together by dehydration synthesis with the acid end of one amino acid linked to the amine end of the next

225
Q

Polypeptide

A

Ten or more united amino acids

226
Q

Alpha helix

A

A secondary protein structure in which the primary protein chain coils

227
Q

Beta sheet

A

Primary polypeptide chains do not coild, but are linked side by side by hydrogen bonds to form a pleated ribbonlike structure

228
Q

Fibrous (structural) proteins

A

Form long strands and exhibit at least secondary structure but often third and quaternary structure
Insoluble in water and very stable

229
Q

Globular (functional) proteins

A

Compact, spherical proteins that have at least tertiary structure
Water soluble chemically active molecules

230
Q

Denatured

A

When hydrogen bonds begin to break (pH drop or temperature rise) and the proteins unfold and lose their specific three-dimensional shape

231
Q

Enzymes

A

Globular proteins that act as biological catalysts

232
Q

Active sites

A

Presence of specific arrangements of atoms where catalytic activity occurs

233
Q

Apoenzyme

A

Protein portion of a functional enzyme (holoenzyme)

234
Q

Cofactor

A

Other part of functional enzyme (holoenzyme)

May be an ion out of a metal element or an organic molecule

235
Q

Coenzyme

A

A cofactor derived from vitamins (especially B-complex)

236
Q

Substrate

A

A substance on which an enzyme acts

237
Q

Activation energy

A

Energy required to be absorbed to prime a reaction

238
Q

Nucleic acids

A

Composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus, are the largest molecules in the body

239
Q

Deoxyribonucleic acid

A

DNA - Genetic material
Found in the nucleus
- Replicates
- Provides basic instructions for building every protein in the body

240
Q

Ribonucleic acid

A

RNA - Located chiefly outside the nucleus

Carries out orders for protein synthesis issued by DNA

241
Q

Adenine / Guanine

A

Purine nitrogen bases that are large and two-ring

242
Q

Cytosine / Thymine / Uracil

A

Pyrimidine nitrogen bases that are small and single-ring

243
Q

Double helix

A

DNA structure - Coiled molecule of two strands

244
Q

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

A

Primary energy-transferring molecule in cells and provides a form of energy that is immediately usable by all body cells

245
Q

Cells

A

Structural units of all living things

246
Q

Cell theory

A

Cell is the smallest unit of life
All organisms are made of one or more cells
Cells only arise from other cells

247
Q

Extracellular materials

A

Substances contributing to body mass that are found outside the cells

248
Q

Extracellular fluid (ECF)

A

Includes interstitial fluid, blood plasma, and cerebrospinal fluid
Dissolves and transports substances in the body

249
Q

Interstitial fluid

A

Fluid in tissues that bathes all of our cells

250
Q

Extracellular matrix

A

The most abundant extracellular material

251
Q

Plasma membrane

A

Separates two of the body’s major fluid compartments - the intracellular fluid inside the cells and the extracellular fluid outside the cells

252
Q

Intracellular fluid

A

Fluid within the cells

253
Q

Fluid mosaic model

A

Depicts the plasma membrane as an exceedingly thin (7-10 nm) structure composed of a double layer, or bilayer, of lipid molecules with protein molecules ‘plugged into’ or dispersed in it

254
Q

Integral proteins

A

Firmly inserted into the lipid bilayer

255
Q

Peripheral proteins

A

Not embedded in the lipid bilayer

256
Q

Glycolipids

A

Lipids with sugars attached

257
Q

Glycoproteins

A

Proteins with sugars attached

258
Q

Glycocalyx

A

“Sugar covering” consists of the fuzzy, sticky, carbohydrate-rich area at the cell surface created by the sugars of glycoproteins and glycolipids

259
Q

Tight cell junction

A

A series of integral protein molecules in the plasma membranes of adjacent cells fuse together

260
Q

Desmosomes

A

Anchoring junctions - mechanical couplings scattered like rivets along the sides of adjacent cells to prevent their separation

261
Q

Gap junction

A

Communicating junction between adjacent cells
Adjacent plasma membranes are very close and the cells are connected by hollow cylinders composed of different transmembrane proteins

262
Q

Passive processes

A

Substances that cross the membrane without any energy input from the cell

263
Q

Active processes

A

The cell provides metabolic energy (usually ATP) needed to move substances across the membrane

264
Q

Diffusion

A

The movement of molecules or ions from an area where they are in higher concentration to an area where they are in lower concentration

265
Q

Concentration gradient

A

Movement from high to low concentration

266
Q

Simple diffusion

A

Substances that diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer

267
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

A passive process in which the transported substance either binds to carrier proteins in the membrane and is ferried across or moves through water filled channel proteins

268
Q

Channels

A

Transmembrane proteins that transport substances, usually ions or water, through aqueous channels from one side of the membrane to the other

269
Q

Osmosis

A

The diffusion of a solvent, such as water, through a selectively permeable membrane

270
Q

Aquaporins (AQPs)

A

Transmembrane proteins that construct water-specific channels that allow single-file diffusion of water molecules

271
Q

Osmolarity

A

The total concentration of all solute particles in a solution

272
Q

Hydrostatic pressure

A

The back pressure exerted by water against the cell wall

273
Q

Osmotic pressure

A

The tendency of water to move into the cell by osmosis

274
Q

Tonicity

A

The ability of a solution to change the shape (or plasma membrane tension) of cells by altering the cells’ internal water volume

275
Q

Isotonic solutions

A

Have the same concentrations of nonpenetrating solutes as those found in cells

276
Q

Hypertonic solutions

A

Have a higher concentration of nonpenetrating solutes than seen in the cell

277
Q

Hypotonic solutions

A

More dilute than concentration that what is in the cell

278
Q

Active transport

A

Require transport proteins that combine specifically and reversibly with the transported protein

279
Q

Pumps

A

Transport proteins that uses energy to do work

280
Q

Cotransport protein

A

Moves more than one substance at a time in a secondary active transport system

281
Q

Primary active transport

A

Hydrolysis of ATP results in the phosphorylation of the pump (the transport protein is energized by the transfer of a phosphate group of ATP)

282
Q

Sodium-potassium pump

A

Drives three Na+ out of the cell and pumps two K+ back in

283
Q

Electrochemical gradients

A

The negatively and positively charged faces of the plasma membrane can help or hinder diffusion of ions driven by a concentration gradient

284
Q

Secondary active transport (cotransport)

A

Uses a cotransport protein to couple the “downhill” (down the concentration gradient) movement of another solute

285
Q

Symport system

A

Two transported substances move in the same direction

286
Q

Antiport system

A

The transported substances “wave to each other” as they cross the membrane in opposite directions

287
Q

Vesicular transport

A

Fluids containing large particles and macromolecules are transported across cellular membranes inside bubble-like, membranous sacs called vesicles

288
Q

Transcytosis

A

Moves substances into, across, and out of the cell

289
Q

Vesicular trafficking

A

Moves substances from one area (or membranous organelle) in the cell to another

290
Q

Endocytosis

A

Bringing substances into cell

291
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Cell engulfs another material by surrounding it in cytoplasmic extensions

292
Q

Phagosome

A

Endocycotic vesicle

293
Q

Amoeboid motion

A

Cytoplasm flows into temporary extensions that allow them to creep along

294
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Bit of infolding plasma membrane surrounds a very small volume of extracellular fluid containing dissolved molecules

295
Q

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

A

Allows cells to concentrate material that is present only in small amounts in the extracellular fluid

296
Q

Exocytosis

A

Cesicular transport processes that eject substances from the cell interior into the extracellular fluid

297
Q

Membrane potential

A

Voltage of a membrane able to generate an action potential

298
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

Ranges from -50 to -90 mV when the cell is at rest (not generating AP)

299
Q

Electrically polarized

A

Difference of charge on opposite sides of the cell membrane resulting in a charged membrane

300
Q

Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)

A

Sticky glycoproteins that anchor themselves to molecules in the extracellular space, ‘arms’ that migrating cells use to haul themselves past one another, SOS signals attracting white blood cells to an infected area, and mechanical sensors that transmit information about changes in the extracellular matrix

301
Q

Ligand

A

Chemical messenger

302
Q

G protein-coupled receptors

A

Exert their effect indirectly through a G protein - regulatory molecule that acts as a middle man to relay to activate (or inactivate) a membrane-ound enzyme or ion channel

303
Q

Second messengers

A

Intracellular chemical signals which connect plasma membrane events to the internal metabolic machinery of the cell

304
Q

Cyclic AMP

A

Important second messenger

305
Q

Cytoplasm

A

The cellular material between the plasma membrane and the nucleus - site of most cellular activities

306
Q

Cytosol

A

The viscous, semitransparent fluid in which other cytoplasmic elements are suspended

307
Q

Inclusions

A

Chemical substances that may or may not be present, depending on cell type

308
Q

Organelles

A

Metabolic machinery of the cell

309
Q

Mitochondria

A

Power plants of the cell, providing most of the ATP supply

310
Q

Cristae

A

Protrude into the mitochondria matrix

311
Q

Ribosomes

A

Sites of protein synthesis

312
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

An extensive system of interconnected tubes and parallel sacs called cisterns (filled with fluid)
Continuous with outer nuclear membrane

313
Q

Rough ER

A

Studded with ribosomes

Proteins assembled on these ribosomes thread their way into the fluid-filled interior of the ER cisterns

314
Q

Smooth ER

A

Continuous with the rough ER and consists of tubules arranged in a looping network (play no role in protein synthesis), enzymes catalyze reactions involved in metabolizing lipids, synthesizing steroid based hormones, detoxifying drugs, breaking down glycogen, store calcium ions

315
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Consists of stacked and flattened membranous sacs
Principal “traffic director” for cellular proteins
Modifies, concentrates, and packages the proteins and lipids made at the rough ER and destined for export from the cell

316
Q

Peroxisomes

A

Spherical membranous sacs containing a variety of powerful enzymes (oxidases and catalases)
Oxidases detoxify harmful substances
Neutralizes free radicals

317
Q

Free radicals

A

Highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons that scramble the structure of biological molecules

318
Q

Lysosomes

A

Spherical membranous organelles containing activated hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes
Large, and abundant in phagocytes - can digest almost all kinds of molecules

319
Q

Endomembrane system

A

A system of organelles that work together mainly to produce, degrade, store, and export biological molecules as well as degrade potentially harmful substances

320
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Elaborate network of rods running through the cytosol that acts as the cell’s structure (bones)

321
Q

Microfilaments

A

Semiflexible strands of the protein actin involved in cell motility and changes in cell shape

322
Q

Intermediate filaments

A

Tough, insoluble protein fibers that resemble woven ropes
Most stable and permanent of cytoskeletal elements and strongly resist tension
Internal cables that resist pulling forces exerted on the cell

323
Q

Microtubules

A

Hollow tubes made of spherical protein subunits called tubulin
Determine the overal shape of the cell and distribution of cellular organelles

324
Q

Centrosome

A

Cell center

Acts as a microtubule organizing center

325
Q

Centrioles

A

Small, barrel-shaped organelles oriented at right angles to each other
Form the basis for cilia and flagella

326
Q

Centrosome matrix

A

Made up of centrioles and centrosomes known for generating microtubules and organizing the mitotic spindle in cell division

327
Q

Cilia

A

Whiplike, motile cellular extensions - moves substances in one direction across cell surfaces

328
Q

Flagella

A

Cellular extensions susbtantially longer than cilia and propels the cell itself - sperm

329
Q

Basal bodies

A

Centrioles forming the bases of cilium or flagellum

330
Q

Microvilli

A

Tiny, finger-like extensions of the plasma membrane that project from an exposed cell surface
Increase plasma membrane surface area tremendously

331
Q

Nucleus

A

Control center of cells containing genetic material

332
Q

Multinucleate

A

Cells that have multiple nuclei

333
Q

Anucleate

A

Cells that cannot reproduce and therefor live in the bloodstream for only three to four months (have no nucleus - blood)

334
Q

Nuclear envelope

A

Double membrane barrier separated by a fluid filled space

335
Q

Nuclear pores

A

Form aqueous transport channels regulating entry and exit of molecules in and out of the nucleus

336
Q

Nucleoli

A

Where ribosomal subunits are assembled - not membrane bound

337
Q

Chromatin

A

A system of bumpy threads weaving through the nucleoplasm composed of DNA, globular histone proteins (package and regulate DNA), and RNA

338
Q

Nucleosomes

A

Consist of flattened disc-shaped cores or clusters of eight histone proteins connected

339
Q

Histones

A

Provide a physical means for packing the very long DNA molecules in a compact, orderly way

340
Q

Chromosomes

A

Short barlike bodies of chromatin threads

341
Q

Interphase

A

The period from cell formation to cell division

342
Q

G1 - Gap 1 subphase

A

Cell is metabolically active, synthesizing proteins rapidly and growing vigorously

343
Q

G0

A

Cells that permanently stop dividing

344
Q

S phase

A

DNA is replciated ensuring that the two future cells being created will receive identical copies of the genetic material

345
Q

G2 - GGap 2 subphase

A

Brief inal phase of interphase as enzymes and other proteins needed for division are synthesized and moved to their proper sites; centriole replication is complete

346
Q

Prophase

A

Chromatin condenses resulting in visible chromatids

347
Q

Metaphase

A

Chromosomes align at equatorial plate

348
Q

Anaphase

A

Centromeres of chromosomes split simultaneously and chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends of the cell by motor proteins of kinetichores

349
Q

Telophase

A

Chromosomes uncoil to form chromatin
Nuclear membranes form
Nucleoli reappears
Spindle fibers dissapear

350
Q

Cytokinesis

A

Splitting of the cell membrane by pinching in the middle

First Year First Semester (14 decks)

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