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First Year First Semester > Psychology Chapters 3&4 > Flashcards

Psychology Chapters 3&4 Flashcards

1
Q

Neurons

A

Cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information-processing tasks

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2
Q

Cell body (or soma)

A

The part of a neuron that coordinates information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive

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3
Q

Dendrite

A

The part of a neuron that receives information from other neurons and relays it to the cell body

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4
Q

Axon

A

The part of a neuron that carries information to other neurons, muscles, or glands

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5
Q

Myelin sheath

A

An insulating layer of fatty material

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6
Q

Glial cells

A

Support cells found in the nervous system

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7
Q

Synapse

A

The junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another

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8
Q

Sensory neurons

A

Neurons that receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord

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9
Q

Motor neurons

A

Neurons that carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles of produce movement

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10
Q

Interneurons

A

Neurons that connect sensory neurons, motor neurons, or other interneurons

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11
Q

Resting potential

A

The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron’s cell membrane

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12
Q

Action potential

A

An electric signal that is conducted along a neuron’s axon to a synapse

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13
Q

Refractory period

A

The time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated

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14
Q

Terminal buttons

A

Knoblike structures that branch out from an axon

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15
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron’s dendrites

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16
Q

Receptors

A

Parts of the cell membrane that receive the neurotransmitter and initiate or prevent a new electric signal

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17
Q

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A

A neurotransmitter involved in a number of functions, including voluntary nerve control

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18
Q

Dopamine

A

A neurotransmitter that regulates motor behaviour, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal

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19
Q

Glutamate

A

The major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain

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20
Q

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

A

The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain

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21
Q

norepinephrine

A

A neurotransmitter that is particularly involved in states of vigilance or heightened awareness of dangers in the environment

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22
Q

Serotonin

A

A neurotransmitter that is involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating, and aggressive behaviour

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23
Q

Endorphins

A

Chemicals that act within the pain pathways and emotion centers of the brain

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24
Q

Agonists

A

Drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter

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25
Q

Antagonists

A

Drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter

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26
Q

Nervous system

A

An interacting network of neurons that conveys electrochemical information throughout the body

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27
Q

Central Nervous System (CNS)

A

The part of the nervous system that is composed of the brain and spinal cord

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28
Q

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

A

The part of the nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the body’s organs and muscles

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29
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

A set of nerve that conveys information between voluntary muscles and the central nervous system

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30
Q

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

A

A set of nerves that carries involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands

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31
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

A set of nerves that prepares the body for action in challenging or threatening situations

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32
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

A set of nerves that helps the body return to a normal resting state

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33
Q

Spinal reflexes

A

Simple pathways in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contractions

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34
Q

Reflex arc

A

A neural pathway that controls reflex actions

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35
Q

Hindbrain

A

The area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord

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36
Q

Medulla

A

An extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation, and respiration

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37
Q

Reticular formation

A

A brain structure that regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal

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38
Q

Cerebellum

A

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills

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39
Q

Pons

A

A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain

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40
Q

Tectum

A

A part of the midbrain that orients an organism in the environment

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41
Q

Tegmentum

A

A part of the midbrain that is involved in movement and arousal

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42
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

The outermost layer of the brain, visible to the naked eye and divided into two hemispheres

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43
Q

Subcortical structures

A

Areas of the forebrain housed under the cerebral cortex near the very center of the brain

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44
Q

Thalamus

A

A subcortical structure that relays and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to the cerebral cortex

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45
Q

Hypothalamus

A

A subcortical structure that regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behaviour

46
Q

Limbic system

A

A group of forebrain structures including the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, and the amygdala, which are involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory

47
Q

Hippocampus

A

A structure critical for creating new memories and integrating the into a network of knowledge so that they can be stored indefinitely in other parts of the cerebral cortex

48
Q

Amygdala

A

A part of the limbic system that plays a central role in many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories

49
Q

Basal ganglia

A

A set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements

50
Q

Endocrine system

A

A network of glands that produce and secrete into the bloodstream chemical messages known as hormones, which influence a wide variety of basic functions, including metabolism, growth, and sexual development

51
Q

Pituitary gland

A

The “master gland” of the body’s hormone-producing system, which releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands in the body

52
Q

Corpus callosum

A

A thick band of nerve fibres that connects large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemispheres

53
Q

Occipital lobe

A

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

54
Q

Parietal lobe

A

A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch

55
Q

Temporal lobe

A

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language

56
Q

Frontal lobe

A

The region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement

57
Q

Association areas

A

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are composed of neurons that help provide sense and meaning to information registered in the cortex

58
Q

Mirror neurons

A

Neurons that are active when an animal performs a behaviour, such as reaching for or manipulating an object, and are also activated when another animal observes that animal performing the same behaviour

59
Q

Gene

A

The major unit of hereditary transmission

60
Q

Chromosomes

A

Strands of DNA wound around each other in a double-helix configuration

61
Q

Epigenetics

A

The study of environmental influences that determine whether or not they are expressed, without altering the basic DNA sequences that constitute the genes themselves

62
Q

Epigenetic marks

A

Chemical modifications to DNA that can turn genes on or off

63
Q

DNA methylation

A

Adding a methyl group to DNA

64
Q

Histone modification

A

Adding chemical modifications to proteins called histones that are involved in packaging DNA

65
Q

Heritability

A

A measure of the variability of behavioural traits among individuals that can be accounted for by genetic factors

66
Q

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

A

A device used to record electrical activity in the brain

67
Q

Sensation

A

Simple stimulation of a sense organ

68
Q

Perception

A

The organization, identification, and interpretation of a sensation in order to form a mental representation

69
Q

Transduction

A

The process that occurs when many sensors in the body convert physical signals from the environment into encoded neural signals sent to the central nervous system

70
Q

Psychophysics

A

Methods that measure the strength of a stimulus and the observer’s sensitivity to that stimulus

71
Q

Absolute threshold

A

The minimal intensity needed to just barely detect a stimulus in 50% of trials

72
Q

Just noticeable difference (JND)

A

The minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected

73
Q

Weber’s law

A

States that the just noticeable difference of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity

74
Q

Signal detection theory

A

Holds that the response to a stimulus depends on both a person’s sensitivity to the stimulus in the presence of noise and the person’s response criterion

75
Q

Sensory adaptation

A

The process whereby sensitivity to prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time as an organism adapts to current conditions

76
Q

Visual acuity

A

The ability to see fine detail

77
Q

Retina

A

A layer of light-sensitive tissue lining the back of the eyeball

78
Q

Accommodation

A

The process whereby the eye maintains a clear image on the retina

79
Q

Cones

A

Photoreceptors that detect colour, operate under normal daylight conditions, and allow us to focus on fine detail

80
Q

Rods

A

Photoreceptors that become active under low-light conditions for night vision

81
Q

Fovea

A

An area of the retina where vision is the clearest and there are no rods at all

82
Q

Blind spot

A

A location in the visual field that produces no sensation on the retina

83
Q

Area V1

A

The part of the occipital lobe that contains the primary visual cortex

84
Q

Colour-opponent system

A

Theory stating that pairs of visual neurons work in opposition

85
Q

Visual form agnosia

A

The inability to recognize objects by sight

86
Q

Parallel processing

A

The brain’s capacity to perform multiple activities at the same time

87
Q

Binding problem

A

How the brain links features together so that we see unified objects in our visul world rather than free-floating or miscombined features

88
Q

Illusory conjunction

A

A perceptual mistake whereby the brain incorrectly combines features from multiple objects

89
Q

Feature-integration theory

A

The idea that focused attention is not required to detect the individual features that make up a stimulus but is required to bind those individual features together

90
Q

Perceptual constancy

A

A perceptual principle stating that even as aspects of sensory signals change, perception remains consistent

91
Q

Template

A

A mental representation that can be directly compared with a viewed shape in the retinal image

92
Q

Monocular depth cues

A

Aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye

93
Q

Binocular disparity

A

The difference in the retinal images of the two eyes that provides information about depth

94
Q

Apparent motion

A

The perception of movement as a result of alternating signals appearing in rapid succession in different locations

95
Q

Change blindness

A

Failure to detect changes to the visual details of a scene

96
Q

Inattentional blindness

A

A failure to perceive objects that are not the focus of attention

97
Q

Pitch

A

How high or low a sound is

98
Q

Loudness

A

A sound’s intensity

99
Q

Timbre

A

A listeener’s experience of sound quality or resonance

100
Q

Cochlea

A

A fluid-filled tube that is the organ of auditory transduction

101
Q

Basilar membrane

A

A structure in the inner ear that undulates when vibrations from the ossicles reach the cochlear fluid

102
Q

Hair cells

A

Specialized auditory receptor neurons embedded in the basilar membrane

103
Q

Area A1

A

A portion of the temporal lobe that contains the primary auditory cortex

104
Q

Place code

A

The process by which different frequencies stimulate neural signals at specific places along the basilar membrane, from which the brain determines pitch

105
Q

Temporal code

A

The process whereby the cochlea registers low frequencies via the firing rate of action potentials entering the auditory nerve

106
Q

Haptic perception

A

The active exploration of the environment by touching and grasping objects with our hands

107
Q

Referred pain

A

Feeling of pain when sensory information from internal and external areas converges on the same nerve cells in the spinal cord

108
Q

Gate-control theory of pain

A

A theory of pain perception based on the idea that signals arriving from pain receptors in the body can be stopped, or gated, by interneurons in the spinal cord via feedback from two directions

109
Q

Vestibular system

A

The three fluid-filled semicircular canals and adjacent organs located next to the cochlea in the inner ear

110
Q

Olfactory Receptor Neurons (ORNs)

A

Receptor cells that initiate the sense of smell

111
Q

Olfactory bulb

A

A brain structure located above the nasal cavity beneath the frontal lobes

112
Q

Pheromones

A

Biochemical odorants emitted by other members of its species that can affect an animal’s behaviour or physiology

First Year First Semester (14 decks)

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