Psychology Chapters 3&4 Flashcards
1
Q
Neurons
A
Cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information-processing tasks
2
Q
Cell body (or soma)
A
The part of a neuron that coordinates information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive
3
Q
Dendrite
A
The part of a neuron that receives information from other neurons and relays it to the cell body
4
Q
Axon
A
The part of a neuron that carries information to other neurons, muscles, or glands
5
Q
Myelin sheath
A
An insulating layer of fatty material
6
Q
Glial cells
A
Support cells found in the nervous system
7
Q
Synapse
A
The junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another
8
Q
Sensory neurons
A
Neurons that receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord
9
Q
Motor neurons
A
Neurons that carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles of produce movement
10
Q
Interneurons
A
Neurons that connect sensory neurons, motor neurons, or other interneurons
11
Q
Resting potential
A
The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron’s cell membrane
12
Q
Action potential
A
An electric signal that is conducted along a neuron’s axon to a synapse
13
Q
Refractory period
A
The time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated
14
Q
Terminal buttons
A
Knoblike structures that branch out from an axon
15
Q
Neurotransmitters
A
Chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron’s dendrites
16
Q
Receptors
A
Parts of the cell membrane that receive the neurotransmitter and initiate or prevent a new electric signal
17
Q
Acetylcholine (ACh)
A
A neurotransmitter involved in a number of functions, including voluntary nerve control
18
Q
Dopamine
A
A neurotransmitter that regulates motor behaviour, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal
19
Q
Glutamate
A
The major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
20
Q
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
A
The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
21
Q
norepinephrine
A
A neurotransmitter that is particularly involved in states of vigilance or heightened awareness of dangers in the environment
22
Q
Serotonin
A
A neurotransmitter that is involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating, and aggressive behaviour
23
Q
Endorphins
A
Chemicals that act within the pain pathways and emotion centers of the brain
24
Q
Agonists
A
Drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter
25
Antagonists
Drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter
26
Nervous system
An interacting network of neurons that conveys electrochemical information throughout the body
27
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The part of the nervous system that is composed of the brain and spinal cord
28
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The part of the nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the body's organs and muscles
29
Somatic nervous system
A set of nerve that conveys information between voluntary muscles and the central nervous system
30
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
A set of nerves that carries involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands
31
Sympathetic nervous system
A set of nerves that prepares the body for action in challenging or threatening situations
32
Parasympathetic nervous system
A set of nerves that helps the body return to a normal resting state
33
Spinal reflexes
Simple pathways in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contractions
34
Reflex arc
A neural pathway that controls reflex actions
35
Hindbrain
The area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord
36
Medulla
An extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation, and respiration
37
Reticular formation
A brain structure that regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal
38
Cerebellum
A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills
39
Pons
A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
40
Tectum
A part of the midbrain that orients an organism in the environment
41
Tegmentum
A part of the midbrain that is involved in movement and arousal
42
Cerebral cortex
The outermost layer of the brain, visible to the naked eye and divided into two hemispheres
43
Subcortical structures
Areas of the forebrain housed under the cerebral cortex near the very center of the brain
44
Thalamus
A subcortical structure that relays and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to the cerebral cortex
45
Hypothalamus
A subcortical structure that regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behaviour
46
Limbic system
A group of forebrain structures including the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, and the amygdala, which are involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory
47
Hippocampus
A structure critical for creating new memories and integrating the into a network of knowledge so that they can be stored indefinitely in other parts of the cerebral cortex
48
Amygdala
A part of the limbic system that plays a central role in many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories
49
Basal ganglia
A set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements
50
Endocrine system
A network of glands that produce and secrete into the bloodstream chemical messages known as hormones, which influence a wide variety of basic functions, including metabolism, growth, and sexual development
51
Pituitary gland
The "master gland" of the body's hormone-producing system, which releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands in the body
52
Corpus callosum
A thick band of nerve fibres that connects large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemispheres
53
Occipital lobe
A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information
54
Parietal lobe
A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch
55
Temporal lobe
A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language
56
Frontal lobe
The region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement
57
Association areas
Areas of the cerebral cortex that are composed of neurons that help provide sense and meaning to information registered in the cortex
58
Mirror neurons
Neurons that are active when an animal performs a behaviour, such as reaching for or manipulating an object, and are also activated when another animal observes that animal performing the same behaviour
59
Gene
The major unit of hereditary transmission
60
Chromosomes
Strands of DNA wound around each other in a double-helix configuration
61
Epigenetics
The study of environmental influences that determine whether or not they are expressed, without altering the basic DNA sequences that constitute the genes themselves
62
Epigenetic marks
Chemical modifications to DNA that can turn genes on or off
63
DNA methylation
Adding a methyl group to DNA
64
Histone modification
Adding chemical modifications to proteins called histones that are involved in packaging DNA
65
Heritability
A measure of the variability of behavioural traits among individuals that can be accounted for by genetic factors
66
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
A device used to record electrical activity in the brain
67
Sensation
Simple stimulation of a sense organ
68
Perception
The organization, identification, and interpretation of a sensation in order to form a mental representation
69
Transduction
The process that occurs when many sensors in the body convert physical signals from the environment into encoded neural signals sent to the central nervous system
70
Psychophysics
Methods that measure the strength of a stimulus and the observer's sensitivity to that stimulus
71
Absolute threshold
The minimal intensity needed to just barely detect a stimulus in 50% of trials
72
Just noticeable difference (JND)
The minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected
73
Weber's law
States that the just noticeable difference of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity
74
Signal detection theory
Holds that the response to a stimulus depends on both a person's sensitivity to the stimulus in the presence of noise and the person's response criterion
75
Sensory adaptation
The process whereby sensitivity to prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time as an organism adapts to current conditions
76
Visual acuity
The ability to see fine detail
77
Retina
A layer of light-sensitive tissue lining the back of the eyeball
78
Accommodation
The process whereby the eye maintains a clear image on the retina
79
Cones
Photoreceptors that detect colour, operate under normal daylight conditions, and allow us to focus on fine detail
80
Rods
Photoreceptors that become active under low-light conditions for night vision
81
Fovea
An area of the retina where vision is the clearest and there are no rods at all
82
Blind spot
A location in the visual field that produces no sensation on the retina
83
Area V1
The part of the occipital lobe that contains the primary visual cortex
84
Colour-opponent system
Theory stating that pairs of visual neurons work in opposition
85
Visual form agnosia
The inability to recognize objects by sight
86
Parallel processing
The brain's capacity to perform multiple activities at the same time
87
Binding problem
How the brain links features together so that we see unified objects in our visul world rather than free-floating or miscombined features
88
Illusory conjunction
A perceptual mistake whereby the brain incorrectly combines features from multiple objects
89
Feature-integration theory
The idea that focused attention is not required to detect the individual features that make up a stimulus but is required to bind those individual features together
90
Perceptual constancy
A perceptual principle stating that even as aspects of sensory signals change, perception remains consistent
91
Template
A mental representation that can be directly compared with a viewed shape in the retinal image
92
Monocular depth cues
Aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye
93
Binocular disparity
The difference in the retinal images of the two eyes that provides information about depth
94
Apparent motion
The perception of movement as a result of alternating signals appearing in rapid succession in different locations
95
Change blindness
Failure to detect changes to the visual details of a scene
96
Inattentional blindness
A failure to perceive objects that are not the focus of attention
97
Pitch
How high or low a sound is
98
Loudness
A sound's intensity
99
Timbre
A listeener's experience of sound quality or resonance
100
Cochlea
A fluid-filled tube that is the organ of auditory transduction
101
Basilar membrane
A structure in the inner ear that undulates when vibrations from the ossicles reach the cochlear fluid
102
Hair cells
Specialized auditory receptor neurons embedded in the basilar membrane
103
Area A1
A portion of the temporal lobe that contains the primary auditory cortex
104
Place code
The process by which different frequencies stimulate neural signals at specific places along the basilar membrane, from which the brain determines pitch
105
Temporal code
The process whereby the cochlea registers low frequencies via the firing rate of action potentials entering the auditory nerve
106
Haptic perception
The active exploration of the environment by touching and grasping objects with our hands
107
Referred pain
Feeling of pain when sensory information from internal and external areas converges on the same nerve cells in the spinal cord
108
Gate-control theory of pain
A theory of pain perception based on the idea that signals arriving from pain receptors in the body can be stopped, or gated, by interneurons in the spinal cord via feedback from two directions
109
Vestibular system
The three fluid-filled semicircular canals and adjacent organs located next to the cochlea in the inner ear
110
Olfactory Receptor Neurons (ORNs)
Receptor cells that initiate the sense of smell
111
Olfactory bulb
A brain structure located above the nasal cavity beneath the frontal lobes
112
Pheromones
Biochemical odorants emitted by other members of its species that can affect an animal's behaviour or physiology
