Psychology Ch. 4 Flashcards
Nature
Our genetics - how they impact our behavior
Nurture
Conditions of our environment
Nature vs. Nurture
Impossible to separate these
Francis Galton (cousin of Darwin)
Father of eugenics recognized for his contributions to the study of individual differences and the development of certain statistical methods.
Eugenics
(francisGalton) The idea of trying to improve the human population by encouraging certain people to have more children and discouraging others from having children. It involves the belief that certain traits, like intelligence or behavior, are passed down through genes, and by controlling who has children, we can make the overall population “better.”
Dark history - lead the harmful practices
Monozygotic twins
Identical twins - one egg, one sperm
Dizygotic twins
Fraternal twins - two eggs, two sperm
Epigenetics
Changes in gene expression that are due to non genetic influences.
Predictor variables
Low MAO-A + maltreatment – increased probability of being a violent criminal
(Type of MAO-A gene - lower vs higher levels of MAO (nature))
MAO-A
enzyme that breaks down certain neurotransmitters in the brain.
Heredity
The genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring.
Heritability
An estimate of the genetic proportion of the variation in some specific trait *within a particular population (not an individual)
Central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system
Somatic, autonomic, sympathetic, parasympathetic nervous system.
Somatic nervous system
Skin, muscles, and joints (Intentional muscle movement.)
e.g., waving arm around
Autonomic nervous system
Internal organs/glands (unintentional functions)
e.g., heart beating, pupils constricting
[sympathetic, parasympathetic]
Sympathetic nervous system
fight or flight response
e.g., encountering a threat
Parasympathetic nervous system
Rest and digest - promotes relaxation and recovery after a stressor has passed.
Slows down heart rate, stimulates digestion, and conserves energy.
Neurons
Operates through electrical impulses - compulses with other neurons with other neurons through chemical signals.
Cells
Cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus etc..
Sensory neurons (afferent)
Transmit signals FROM sensory receptors (e.g., in the skin, eyes, ears) to the central nervous system (CNS).
e.g., When you touch a hot surface, afferent neurons convey the sensation of heat to the spinal cord and brain.
Motor neurons (efferent)
Transmit signals AWAY from the central nervous system (CNS) to muscles or glands.
e.g., When your brain decides to move your hand, efferent neurons carry signals from the brain to the muscles, resulting in the movement.
Axon
transmit electrical signals, known as action potentials or nerve impulses, away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Label this neuron
https://www.google.com/search?q=empty+neuron+diagram&sca_esv=590226030&rlz=1C5CHFA_enUS1071CA1075&tbm=isch&sxsrf=AM9HkKkE5tRB_9v9YcEPBmZPnhw5MxqPZw:1702405852551&source=lnms&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjL_-qAxIqDAxUNDzQIHdZ2AFgQ_AUoAXoECAMQAw&biw=1468&bih=739&dpr=2#imgrc=POeaYroeuNWlTM
Dendrites
The branch-like extensions of a nerve cell (neuron) that receive signals from other neurons and transmit these signals toward the cell body
Myelin sheath
Surrounds and insulates the axon. Myelin helps speed up the transmission of nerve impulses along the axon.
(think of a wire the - black cover insulates the electricity from flowing out of the wire.)
Nodes of Ranvier
Small gaps or interruptions in the myelin sheath. These nodes are crucial for the efficient transmission of nerve impulses along the axon
Terminal buttons
They transmit signals to the dendrites found at the end of axons.
Key Result
Low-MAO gene + maltreatment à increased probability
of being a violent criminal
Action Potential
Is resting at -70mV (there is more potassium inside (only a little bit of sodium inside )) (outside there is more sodium and less potassium)
Channels are closed until you reach -55mV Depolarizes form -70 to -55 once you reach the threshold it depolarizes to -40
(at - 55 the voltage gated sodium channels open and allows for more sodium to come in the potassium also stays in)
The sodium comes in until you reach +40 - then the potassium channels open, and then the potassium on the inside leaves.
When the potassium ions are leaving the neuron the repolarization begins where it goes back down to -70mV
The reason hyperpolarization occurs is because it takes a while for the potassium channels to close which (prevents the action potential to go backwards. )
When too much potassium leaves the neuron.
The sodium potassium pump brings the neuron to resting potential. (kicks out two sodiums to bring back one potassium.)
All or none principle
A neuron fires with the same
magnitude each time (it either fires or does not fire)
Saltatory Conduction
nerve impulses or action potentials jump from one node of Ranvier to another along a myelinated axon.
Neurotransmitters
Are chemical substances that carry
signals from one neuron to another
Are stored in vesicles (small packages)
inside the terminal buttons
Presynaptic membrane
It is on the sending cell/neuron and it sends neurotransmitters to the next neuron. It plays a crucial role in the communication between neurons in the nervous system.
Postsynaptic membrane
a specialized region on the receiving end of a synapse, where signals from a transmitting neuron (presynaptic neuron) are received
Glutamate
Primary excitatory neurotransmitter (GO)
GABA
Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter (STOP)
Serotonin
Mood, impulsiveness, hunger, sleep
Dopamine
Reward and motivation, voluntary
movement
Acetylcholine
Movement; memory, cognition,
sleep
Epinephrine & norepinephrine
e.g., stress response (“fight or flight”)
Agonist
A substance that acts like a neurotransmitter, binding to receptors and causing a response in the nervous system. It can either imitate the effects of a natural neurotransmitter or enhance those effects.
e.g., Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) used in the treatment of depression, enhances the action of serotonin. SSRIs increase the availability of serotonin in the synapses, leading to improved mood and reduced symptoms of depression.
Morphine (mimics endorphins), cocaine (prevents
reuptake of dopamine)
Antagonist
An antagonist is a substance that blocks or opposes the action of neurotransmitters. It binds to receptors without activating them, preventing neurotransmitters from carrying out their usual functions.
e.g., Certain antiemetics used to prevent nausea, block serotonin receptors. By doing so, they can counteract the effects of excessive serotonin activity in the gut and help prevent nausea.
E.g., Beta-blockers (block epinephrine), Botulinum
toxin (blocks acetylcholine)
Neuroplasticity
The brain is “plastic” –> able to be changed, reorganized, as a result of experience, drugs, or injury (e.g., stroke)
E.g., Rats raised in enriched versus impoverished
environments (research going back to the 1960s)
(resulted in structural changes in the brain - neurons looked different more branches etc..)
Brain stem
Controls life sustaining functions
of the autonomic nervous system,
including breathing, digestion, heartbeat,
etc..
Reticular formation
(net of neurons that extend from the brains stem up into some higher levels) - key function is aurasol and alertness (sleep wake cycles)
Cerebellum
(Little brain) essential for coordinated movement and balance - muscle memory (50% of brain neurons)
The Diencephalon
Right in the center really inner part of the brain - above the brain stem
two key areas - hypothalamus and the thalamus (below the cortex )
Hypothalamus
Controls the release of endorphins and connects our nervous system with our endocrine system (hormone system)
Vital to maintaining homeostasis in the body (idea of maintaining equilibrium) - we maintain a temp of 98.6 and that things go wrong if we get too cold or too hot the hypothalamus helps maintain it and make sure our temp is staying at a good place
The 4 F’s (feeding, fighting, fleeing, fornicating[mating])
Thalamus
Often referred to as a relay station – Handles all incoming sensory information except smell
It is the first stopping point for all incoming sensory info into the brain - goes from the thalamus and sends the info to the primary senses area.
Patient George
Had a stroke, the thalamus was effected and developed synesthesia
Tatiana and Krista Hogan (2006)
Craniopagus twins whose brains are connected (conjoined twins) - they shared the bridge connecting their thalamus (could sense things the other one was experiencing.
e.g., could taste the other twins ketchup
The Limbic system
Amygdala, hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus, cingulate cortex, septal nuclei, mammillary bodies, fornix, hypothalamus.
Basal Ganglia
There are different areas of the basal ganglia - nucleus accumbens - really important for reward. (Dopamine)
it is full of dopamine neurons
voluntary movement and producing appropriate movement - knowing when we are doing a certain activity how much force do we need to use to grip a cup etc..
Hippocampus
Formation and storage of long-
term memory
A Hippo on campus? i’ll never forget seeing that!
Hippocampus and neuroplasticity
Cab drivers had to get a specific license - they needed to memorize a map of london. (streets etc..)
took people 4 years
there were physical changes in the brain.
Amygdala
Best known for its role in processing fear - essential to our ability to form memories for emotional event
– in front of the hippocampus
e.g., memories of 9/11
Cerebral cortex
The outer layer of the brain; each cerebral hemisphere has four lobes
Corpus callosum
Massive bridge of axons connects the hemisphere allows info to flow between them
Cerebral cortex (Names of lobes)
Occipital, temporal, parietal, frontal.
Occipital lobe
Vision Primary and visual cortex
Temporal lobes
Hearing, primary auditory cortex
Parietal lobe
Touch, primary sensory cortex
Frontal lobe
Planning, movement
Primary motor cortex (back most part of the frontal lobe)
Prefrontal cortex (where your forehead is) (really important in humans compared to other primates) we have a really large prefrontal cortex area
Responsible for all higher order cognitive functions 30% of the human brain
(executive functions) - attention, working memory, decision making, personality
Phineas Gage
Railroad construction foreman in the 19th century who became famous for surviving a severe brain injury. Gage was working on a railroad construction site when a large iron rod accidentally penetrated his skull. The rod entered under his left cheekbone and exited through the top of his head (frontal lobe). Gage not only survived the injury but also remained conscious throughout the ordeal. He was able to speak and walk shortly after the accident. However, his personality underwent a significant change. Before the injury, Gage was described as responsible, reliable, and well-liked. After the accident, he became impulsive, irresponsible, and exhibited a lack of social restraint.
Endocrine system
A complex network of glands and organs in the human body that produce and release hormones.
Hormones
These are chemical messengers secreted by the endocrine glands. Hormones travel through the bloodstream to target cells or organs, where they exert their effects. Examples of hormones include insulin, cortisol, estrogen, and testosterone.
Pituitary gland
Just below the hypothalamus (looks like balls) - is sometimes called the master gland
Contains two lobes
Anterior pituitary: growth hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone etc..
Posterior pituitary: secrets but does not synthesize them (oxytocin, vasopressin)
executive functions
Play a crucial role in the cognitive control and regulation of behavior, allowing individuals to navigate complex tasks, solve problems, and adapt to a dynamic environment.
cingulate cortex
A part of the brain that is located in the (middle) aspect of the cerebral cortex, positioned above the corpus callosum. It is a structure in the limbic system, which is associated with emotions, memory, and behavior regulation.
HPA-axis
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, is a complex neuroendocrine system that plays a crucial role in the body’s response to stress. It involves three main components: the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the adrenal glands.
neurogenesis
the process by which new neurons (nerve cells) are generated in the brain. This process occurs mainly in two regions of the brain
Hippocampus and Olfactory Bulb
nucleus accumbens
A part of the brain that’s really important for making us feel good and motivated. It’s like a reward center. When we do something enjoyable or get a reward, this part of the brain gets active.
orbitofrontal cortex
A region of the brain located in the frontal lobes, just above the orbits (eye sockets). It plays a crucial role in various cognitive and emotional functions, particularly those related to decision-making, social behavior, and the processing of rewards and punishments.
