PSY260 MIDTERM Flashcards
Nativist
(Nature) humans are shaped primarily by their inherited nature (born the way they are)
Empiricist
humans are primarily shaped by their experiences (things in the environment)
(nurture) - things in the world and in the environment that changes who people are.)
Plato
thought that people are born with what they are born with (Nativist) - their nature determines who they are.
people are born with innate skills and talents - suggested that soon after birth you could sort people to see who are good at certain things.
Descartes
proposed that most of our knowledge is innate not from experience (nativist)
Aristotle
empiricist - knowledge and talent are much more dependent on training and experience that shape who you are
Locke
empiricist - people are born as blank slates (tabula rasa) - everyone starts out as this equal person in the world and everything that they become is formed by their experiences.
Associatisicm
how concepts or ideas can become connected in the mind.
Contiguity: This rule states that experiences occurring close together in time or space are remembered and associated with one another. For example, if you smell cookies baking and then see cookies on the counter shortly after, you might associate the smell with seeing cookies in the future.
Contrast: According to this rule, things that are opposites or notably different from each other can also become associated. This might sound a bit confusing because it’s less intuitive than the other rules. An example could be associating hot weather with cold ice cream. The strong difference between the hot and the cold makes the connection memorable, despite them being opposites.
Similarity: This rule suggests that things that share similar characteristics are easily associated with one another. For instance, if you have a positive experience with one friendly dog, you might expect positive experiences with other dogs that look or behave similarly.
Associationism expanded
added the idea that frequency interacts with these rules of association.
e.g., if lemons are always yellow then they are very frequently contiguous with yellow
The more things get paired the stronger the association is
William James
functionalism - proposed that experiences can link things in the mind.
he is trying to think about how the associations happen
(smell the same perfume later after seeing the lady reminds you of the lady or that night)
When you remember one idea it can bring up related ideas (spreading activation)
Believed that these connections are happening in the brain.
Ebbinghaus
Interested in studying memory experimentally.
collected data - he was his own subject (gave himself many memory tests)
he manipulated an independent variable to observe an outcomes of an dependent variable - expressed outcomes numerically.
studied list of nonsense words - pronounceable but not a word.
1. learn the list
2. give delay period
3. test memory to see how much of list could still remember.
4. then he would do that exact same thing again.
Ebbinghaus - idea of savings
Savings is how much easier it is to learn the list the second time. - compared to the first time.
then how much easier it is to learn the list the third time compared to the second etc..
Savings is 1- (time to learn a list a second time/ first time)
Value closer to 1 - good memory
Value closer to 0 - not good savings getting carried over no benefit
Exponential Forgetting Curve
Horizontal Axis (X-axis): This shows time, measured in hours, after you’ve learned something. It starts at 0 hours (right after learning) and extends out to many hours later (up to 800 hours on this graph).
Vertical Axis (Y-axis): This measures how much of the information you remember, shown as a percentage. It starts at 0% (remembering nothing) and goes up to 100% (remembering everything).
The Curve:
Starting Point: The curve would typically start at the top of the graph, often close to 100%, right after you’ve learned something new—meaning you remember almost all of it.
Initial Drop: Shortly after learning, the curve drops sharply down. This shows that you quickly forget a lot of what you just learned if you don’t review it.
Flattening Out: As time goes on, the curve starts to flatten, which means you forget less and less. Even though you’re still forgetting, you lose information more slowly.
Effects of Repeated Learning:
If you keep reviewing or practicing what you’ve learned, the curve will not drop as sharply. Each time you review, the curve will start at a higher point on the vertical axis (you remember more) and drop slower
Pavlov
studied medicine his initially study was just studying dogs digestion - what he noticed was that the dogs would begin to salivate when the person feeding them would come into the room.
ringing a bell before providing food triggered the salivation.
classical conditioning. - to study the laws of association
frequency - the more times he repeated bell with food the more salivation - curve looked similar to forgetting curve.
contiguity - presenting bell and food together.
similarity - the response generalized to things that sounded like the bell.
Ramon y Cajal
contributed to understand of neurons and how they work
proposed that learning was due to a change in the connectivity of neurons.
believed that cog exercise could make connections stronger only during childhood and then it was fixed (this is no longer true it is not fixed in adulthood)
developmental plasticity
plasticity in the brain that happens during childhood
Adaptive plasticity
any plasticity that is making changes to the brain that is helpful
restorative plasticity
plasticity after some sort of damage.
Functionalism
interested in saying why things are happening - these ideas that we are the way we are for a reason and our mental processes serve some sort of purpose
e.g., learning and why it would be important for us to make associations between things etc..
Structuralism
where consciousness is happening, what different mental processes are for
(what is perception? what is thought etc..)
psychoanalytic
freud - mostly interested in trauma, mental illness, and subconscious,
Behaviorism
we can only study observable behaviors we cannot study what is happening in the mind.
Cognitive
focus back to mental processes - thinking can we use these behaviors but also think about what processes are happening in the mind
Thorndike
experimental functionalist - liked to put cats in puzzle boxes and wait until they figured out how to get out - and were rewarded with food.
(usually pressed button by accident but with time they more frequently press)
useful behaviors get reinforced.
Law of effect
behaviours with positive effects are
repeated; behaviours with negative effects are not
John Watson/ behaviorism principles
Behaviorist -
Behaviour is observable, objective, and quantifiable; Mental processes such as dreams, feelings, and the subconscious are not directly observable and therefore can’t be studied
Empiricism:
This idea says that all your actions are learned from your experiences. If you change the environment or experiences of someone, you can change how they act. For example, if a child learns they get a treat every time they clean their room, they’ll want to clean it more often.
Evolutionary Perspective:
This viewpoint suggests that humans act a lot like other animals because we all come from the same evolutionary background. So, studying animals can help us understand human behavior. For example, if a rat learns to navigate a maze for food, it suggests humans can also learn tasks for rewards.
Quantitative:
Psychologists use numbers and math to describe and predict behaviors, similar to how physicists use equations to describe gravity. They look for patterns that can apply to many different situations.
Law of Effect:
This law states that your future behavior depends on what happened in the past as a result of your actions. If something you did before brought you happiness or rewards, you’re likely to do it again. If it brought you trouble or pain, you’re likely to avoid doing it. For example, if eating a certain food made you sick, you probably won’t eat it again.
Toleman
Cognitive psych - he devised experiment - mice entered a chamber where there is a path, they run up the path learn a route to a final place where they get a reward - gave a different chamber diff layout food in same spot the mice round the food.
Cognitive psychology
ocus on Mental Processing:
While we can’t see thoughts or memories, we can study them in a systematic and scientific way, much like scientists study invisible things like gravity or electricity.
Computer Metaphor:
This analogy compares the human mind to a computer. Just like understanding a computer involves studying its hardware (physical parts) and software (programs), studying the mind involves figuring out how our brains process information.
Nuanced Evolutionary Perspective:
While humans share many traits with animals, we also have unique abilities, especially in how we communicate, reason, and plan. Our evolutionary path has given us these special skills that are different from other animals.
Modelling/Simulation:
Instead of just looking for simple rules that explain behavior, cognitive psychologists try to create detailed models of how the brain processes information. These models help us understand human behavior and can also help in designing artificial intelligence systems that mimic human thinking.
Intrinsic Motivation:
Although rewards and consequences (like in the Law of Effect) shape our behavior, humans also have a natural curiosity and desire to learn and explore, which motivates us to learn new things without needing external rewards.
Core nervous system functions
collect sensory information. - bring information form the world around us.
process that information
and then to generate a behavior (motor output) (Action)
parts of the nervous system
CNS - central nervous system (brain, brain stem and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System:
Think of this as all the wires that connect your brain and spinal cord (central nervous system) to the rest of your body. These nerves carry messages back and forth, letting your brain know what’s happening in your body and telling your body how to react.
Somatic:
This part deals with things you do on purpose, like moving your arms or legs when you want to. It also helps you feel things like when something is hot or cold, or when you’re touching something.
Autonomic:
This system works on autopilot to manage your body’s automatic functions without you having to think about them.
Sympathetic: This is like your body’s gas pedal in a car—it helps you react quickly in a stressful situation, like when you need to fight off a threat or run away from it (fight or flight).
Parasympathetic: Think of this as the brake pedal—it helps your body calm down and rest after the danger has passed (rest and digest)
Anterior
(Front): Facing forward; the front side of the body.
Posterior
(Back): Facing backward; the back side of the body.
Dorsal
(Top): Towards the back or upper side;
Ventral
(Bottom): Towards the belly; the lower side or front of the body
Rostral
Towards the nose or front of the head.
Caudal
Towards the tail or back of the head.
Superior
(Top): The upper part of the brain.
Inferior
(Bottom): The lower part of the brain, closer to the base of the skull.
Lateral
outside of brain (the sides)
Medial
the middle
What is the general pattern of sensory information processing from posterior to anterior areas in the cortex?
Sensory information processing starts in the more posterior areas with detailed representations of features and becomes more abstract as it moves to more anterior areas.
When you look at a cat, the posterior part of your brain first processes basic visual details like shapes and colors.
What type of processing occurs in medial areas of the cortex?
Processing in medial areas of the cortex tends to be more internally-focused or self-referential.
What type of processing occurs in lateral areas of the cortex?
Lateral areas of the cortex tend to be more externally-focused and are related to external stimuli or task-oriented processing.
What functions are primarily controlled by the frontal lobe?
Handles executive functions, such as decision-making, problem-solving, and planning.
ex.
When you’re deciding whether to do your homework now or later, your frontal lobe is actively weighing the pros and cons
What sensory information does the parietal lobe process?
Processes touch, feelings, and the sense of space, helping with navigation and sensation.
ex. If you’re walking through a crowded room, your parietal lobe helps you navigate the space without bumping into things, and you feel the texture of the carpet under your feet.
What is the primary function of the occipital lobe?
Responsible for vision; it processes all visual information from the eyes.
What are the key functions of the temporal lobe?
Important for hearing and memory, including processing sounds and storing memories related to them.
What are the main components and functions of the basal ganglia?
The basal ganglia include structures like the caudate nucleus, putamen, and nucleus accumbens. They are primarily involved in modulating movement and coordinating voluntary motor controls.
What is the primary function of the thalamus?
The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory information, transmitting this data to the appropriate sensory cortices in the brain.
What is the function of the amygdala?
The amygdala is crucial for processing emotions, influencing both emotional responses and memory formation related to emotional events.
What role does the hippocampus play in the brain?
The hippocampus is essential for memory consolidation, which involves the process of forming and storing new memories for long-term use.
What is a reflex?
A reflex is a very simple action your body does automatically in response to something, like pulling your hand away from something hot, without needing to think about it.
Where are reflexes processed in the body?
Reflexes are mostly handled in the spinal cord, which allows you to react super quickly, skipping the brain’s involvement in the initial response.
What are some key things to know about reflexes?
Reflexes are automatic and built-in reactions that happen without you having to decide to do them. They help you protect yourself by reacting quickly.
What is the common pathway for sensory information in the brain?
Sensory information travels from sensory organs to the thalamus, and then to the primary sensory cortex of the brain.
What is the pathway for visual information in the brain?
Visual information from the eyes first goes to the thalamus, and then it is processed in the primary visual cortex (V1) in the occipital lobe.
What does the primary sensory cortex do with the information it receives?
The primary sensory cortex initially processes sensory information. After initial processing, it relays the information to other cortical areas for further processing and integration.
How is voluntary motor output transmitted in the brain?
All voluntary motor output is sent from the primary motor cortex (M1), located in the frontal lobe, down to the spinal cord.
What are the main inputs to the primary motor cortex (M1) that help form behavioral plans?
M1 receives inputs from the frontal lobes, which are involved in planning and logical thinking, as well as from the cerebellum and basal ganglia, which refine the motor program.
Why is the coordination of multiple brain regions important for behavior?
Beyond simple reflexes, even basic behaviors require the coordination of multiple brain regions to manage and fine-tune the control of many muscles simultaneously.
How do humans develop coordinated behaviors?
While some motor programs are innate (built-in), humans largely depend on learning from experience to develop and refine coordinated behaviors effectively.
What does comparing brains across different species tell us?
Comparing brains across species helps us understand that brain function is influenced by more than just size; it includes how different brain parts are specialized and proportioned to meet the specific needs of each species.
What is a key lesson from comparing brain sizes across species?
A larger brain isn’t necessarily better. Brain efficiency and functionality often depend on how brain regions are specialized and proportioned relative to each species’ lifestyle and environment.
How do brain structures vary among different species?
Brain structures vary not only in size but also in their relative proportions, which are adapted to each species’ ecological niche. For example, birds have larger cerebellums relative to their total brain size compared to humans, who have a disproportionately large cerebral cortex.
What is the general approach to studying brain lesions in humans?
Human brain lesions are typically studied only when medically necessary. Researchers compare brain functions before and after surgery within the same individual or examine patients with similar lesions to understand shared symptoms and effects.
How do researchers recruit and study patients for lesion analysis?
Researchers recruit patients with lesions in similar brain areas to study common symptoms and effects, or they study patients with similar symptoms to understand what brain areas are affected.
What are some challenges in analyzing lesion data?
Lesion data can be messy and hard to interpret because no two brain lesions are exactly alike, and different brains can react differently to similar damage.
How does MRI work? and What are the advantages of using MRI for brain imaging?
MRI uses a strong magnetic field to align atoms in the brain, and then measures the signals they emit to create detailed images of brain tissues.
MRI provides extremely detailed 3-D structural models of the brain, is safe as it uses no radiation,
What is the EEG approach to brain imaging? and What are the strengths and weaknesses of EEG?
EEG involves placing electrodes on the scalp to detect electrical charges from neural activity, offering a non-invasive and portable method.
EEG has high temporal specificity but low spatial resolution, making it hard to pinpoint exactly where in the brain signals are coming from.
How does MEG work? and what are the advantages of MEG over EEG?
MEG records magnetic fields produced by electrical currents in the brain using sensors placed near the scalp, but it is more complex and less portable than EEG.
MEG offers better spatial resolution than EEG because the magnetic fields don’t get as distorted by the scalp, providing more accurate localization of brain activity.
What are excitatory neurons and what neurotransmitter do they use?
Excitatory neurons activate other neurons by using the neurotransmitter glutamate. They help in sending signals that tell neurons to fire action potentials, essential for brain functions like thinking and movement.
What are inhibitory neurons and what neurotransmitter do they use?
Inhibitory neurons prevent other neurons from firing too much by using the neurotransmitter GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid). They keep the brain’s activity balanced, preventing excessive action that can lead to disorders like epilepsy.
What are glial cells and what is their main function?
Glial cells are not neurons but are essential for supporting and maintaining them. They provide structural support, clean up waste, and insulate neurons to improve signal transmission. They are crucial for overall brain health and functionality.
Action Potential: Key Stages
Resting Potential: The neuron is at rest with a negative charge inside (-70mV). It’s ready to receive a signal.
Depolarization: When the neuron receives a stimulus strong enough to reach a threshold, sodium channels open, allowing positively charged sodium ions (Na+) to rush into the neuron. This causes the internal voltage to rise rapidly towards +40mV.
Repolarization: As the peak is reached, sodium channels close and potassium channels open. Potassium ions (K+) begin to leave the neuron, which starts to bring the charge back down towards the resting potential.
Hyperpolarization (Refractory Period): The potassium channels stay open a bit too long, causing an overshoot below the normal resting potential, making it hyperpolarized. During this phase, the neuron is less likely to fire another action potential.
Recovery: Sodium and potassium ions are returned to their original sides of the membrane via the sodium-potassium pump, which uses ATP to move them against their concentration gradients, restoring the resting potential
What are neurotransmitters and where are they stored?
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers stored in synaptic vesicles within the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron. They are crucial for transmitting signals across the synaptic cleft.
How does an action potential trigger neurotransmitter release?
An action potential reaching the axon terminal opens calcium channels, leading to the fusion of synaptic vesicles with the membrane and the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
What happens when neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron?
Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors, which can either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron, influencing whether it will fire an action potential.
What are some examples of neurotransmitters and their effects?
Examples include acetylcholine (muscle control), dopamine (mood and reward - Dopamine facilitates memory consolidation), norepinephrine (alertness), GABA (inhibition), and glutamate (excitation).
Hebbian Synapses
cells that fire together, wire together
Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system, which plays a key role in neural activation, learning, and memory.
Presynaptic, Postsynaptic, Perisynaptic
Presynaptic: Referring to the part of the synapse that releases neurotransmitters (found in the axon terminal of the neuron).
Postsynaptic: Referring to the part of the synapse that receives and responds to neurotransmitters (found on the dendrite or cell body of a neuron).
Perisynaptic: Referring to the regions around the synapse that may be involved in modulating synaptic function
How do neurons compete according to Hebbian plasticity?
Neurons that don’t synchronize their firing can lose their synaptic links over time, as connections that are used more frequently become stronger.
What does Hebbian plasticity suggest about experience and synaptic connections?
It suggests that synaptic connections can improve through repeated use, similar to natural selection, favoring pathways that are most effective in responding to environmental stimuli.
What happens at the synaptic level during Hebbian plasticity?
Repeated activation increases the number of receptors at the synapse and can cause physical changes that stabilize and enhance the connection, making it more effective for future interactions.
Synaptic Stabilization
The process of strengthening and maintaining existing synapses
over time
LTP – long-term potentiation
LTP makes the connection between brain cells stronger when they work at the same time a lot.
How does LTP happen?
When brain cells fire together often, the connection gets stronger by adding more docking spots (receptors) where brain signals can land.
Why do our brains make new connections?
New connections help our brains remember things better and learn faster. It’s like making a trail in the woods more used and easier to walk on.
What happens during Long-Term Depression (LTD) in the brain?
LTD is when the connections between neurons weaken because they fire out of sync or don’t fire together often.
Why is it good to lose some neural connections?
Losing connections helps the brain stay efficient by removing less useful or incorrect links, making room for stronger, more accurate connections. It’s like pruning a plant to encourage healthy growth in the right areas.
How does LTD cause synapses to weaken?
If two neurons rarely interact or their interactions are not synchronized, their link weakens, and the brain may eventually dismantle these underused connections.
What does neural plasticity mean?
the brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. It changes based on experiences.
What is synaptic plasticity?
Synaptic plasticity is how synapses (connections between neurons) can strengthen or weaken over time, depending on how much they are used.
What does habituation mean in psychology?
Habituation is when you get used to something after being exposed to it many times, so you react less and less. It’s like when you stop noticing the sound of a clock ticking after a while in a room.
What is an example of habituation in infants?
When infants see something new, they look at it a lot at first because it’s interesting. But if they see it many times and nothing else happens, they start looking less and less because they get used to it.
What is the “Decrease in Response” characteristic of habituation?
Decrease in response is when repeated exposure to the same stimulus causes a gradual decline in the intensity or frequency of the response to that stimulus. This decrease can follow an exponential or linear trend. An example of this is when a person living near a train track eventually stops noticing the noise from passing trains.
What is Spontaneous Recovery
Spontaneous recovery occurs when a response that has decreased through habituation returns after a pause with no stimulus. This recovery indicates that the decrease in response was not due to fatigue or sensory adaptation. For example, if a person accustomed to the noise of the train moves away for a vacation and then returns, they may notice the train noise again temporarily before habituating once more
What is Potentiation of Habituation?
happens when the rate and depth of response decrease improve after multiple cycles of habituation and spontaneous recovery. Each time the stimulus is reintroduced and then removed, the habituation happens faster and the response diminishes more significantly. An example is learning to ignore a distracting noise faster each time it occurs after breaks, such as construction sounds returning every summer.
How does the frequency of stimulation affect habituation?
More frequent stimulation leads to quicker response decrement but may result in less durable habituation. Spacing out stimulation results in slower habituation that tends to last longer.
What is the difference between spaced and massed practice in learning?
Spaced practice involves taking breaks between learning sessions, leading to better retention and longer-lasting learning. Massed practice involves cramming information in short time spans, often resulting in quick learning but poor long-term retention
How does stimulus intensity affect habituation?
Weaker stimuli lead to more rapid and pronounced habituation. Strong stimuli result in less habituation and may lead to sensitization, enhancing response to very intense or noxious stimuli.
What happens with very intense stimuli in terms of behavioral response?
Very intense stimuli lead to sensitization, where the behavioral response becomes more pronounced rather than habituating.
What is the effect of continued exposure to a stimulus after reaching the behavioral asymptotic level?
Effects of habituation can continue to accumulate even after the behavioral response appears to have stabilized at an asymptotic level, suggesting ongoing neural adaptations.
What does it mean when a behavioral response reaches an asymptotic level?
It means the response has stabilized and does not show significant changes with further stimuli. However, neural changes may still be occurring that could affect future responses.
What is stimulus generalization in habituation?
Habituation sticks to the specific stimulus it was trained on, rarely affecting responses to similar stimuli. This helps tell it apart from just getting tired of responding (motor fatigue).
What is dishabituation?
Dishabituation is when a new, different stimulus brings back a response that had faded away due to habituation. It shows that the response isn’t gone for good, just suppressed.
What happens if you keep using a dishabituating stimulus?
The more you use a new stimulus to bring back an old response, the less effective it becomes. Eventually, the brain starts to ignore both the new and the old stimuli.
What is long-term habituation?
Long-term habituation means the response to a stimulus keeps decreasing even after a long time, thanks to deep-seated changes in the brain, like new protein creation and tweaking how neurons talk to each other.
What happens during short-term habituation at the synaptic level?
In short-term habituation, frequent stimulation causes the presynaptic neuron to use up its neurotransmitter supplies, leading to fewer neurotransmitters being released and a weaker signal being sent. This process is known as synaptic depression.
What is back propagation in neural activity?
Back propagation is like an echo of the action potential that travels back towards a neuron’s dendrites from the axon after firing. It helps the neuron adjust its functions based on the signals received, playing a key role in learning and memory by affecting how neurons communicate and adapt.
What is sensitization and how does it differ from habituation?
Sensitization is an increase in responsiveness to a stimulus due to a big event and can generalize across different stimuli. It often requires just one exposure to develop and enhances responses to important or dangerous stimuli. In contrast, habituation is a decrease in responsiveness to a benign stimulus through repeated exposure and is specific to that stimulus.
What is peripheral sensitization and what causes it?
eripheral sensitization occurs in the peripheral nerves and is often triggered by tissue damage or inflammation, leading to increased responsiveness of sensory nerves to pain signals.
What is central sensitization and where does it occur?
Central sensitization occurs in the brain and spinal cord, enhancing pain signal transmission and often discussed in relation to chronic pain conditions.
What are allodynia and hyperalgesia, and how are they related to sensitization?
Allodynia is a heightened response to non-painful stimuli, and hyperalgesia is an increased sensitivity to pain. Both conditions can result from either peripheral or central sensitization, reflecting an abnormal pain response.
What are the basic components of classical conditioning?
Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - naturally triggers a reflex; Unconditioned Response (UR) - natural reaction to US; Neutral Stimulus (NS/CS) - becomes Conditioned Stimulus (CS) after association with US; Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - triggers a learned response after association; Conditioned Response (CR) - learned response to CS
